Old Turkic script

Old Turkic script
Orkhon script
Old Turkic script; Orkhon script
	A line dedicated to Bumin Qaghan in the Ongin inscription
Script type	Alphabet
Time period	8th to 10th centuries
Direction	Right-to-left script
Languages	Old Turkic
Related scripts
Parent systems	Egyptian hieroglyphics Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician alphabet Aramaic alphabet Syriac alphabet Sogdian alphabet Old Turkic script; ; ; ; ; ;
Child systems	Old Hungarian
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Orkh (175), Old Turkic, Orkhon Runic
Unicode
Unicode alias	Old Turkic
Unicode range	U+10C00–U+10C4F
	This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

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Location of the Orkhon Valley in Asia

The Old Turkic script (also known as variously Göktürk script, Orkhon script, Orkhon-Yenisey script, Turkic runes) was the alphabet used by the Göktürks and other early Turkic khanates from the 8th to 10th centuries to record the Old Turkic language.^[1]

The text is derived from the Aramaic alphabet.^[2]

The script is named after the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia where early 8th-century inscriptions were discovered in an 1889 expedition by Nikolai Yadrintsev.^[3] These Orkhon inscriptions were published by Vasily Radlov and deciphered by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893.^[4]

This writing system was later used within the Uyghur Khaganate. Additionally, a Yenisei variant is known from 9th-century Yenisei Kirghiz inscriptions, and it has likely cousins in the Talas Valley of Turkestan and the Old Hungarian alphabet of the 10th century. Words were usually written from right to left.

Origins

Many scientists, starting with Vilhelm Thomsen (1893), suggested that Orkhon script is derived from descendants of the Aramaic alphabet in particular via the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets of Persia,^[5]^[6]^[7] or possibly via Kharosthi used to write Sanskrit.^[8]^[9]^[10] It has also been speculated that tamgas (livestock brands used by Eurasian nomads) were one of the sources of the Old Turkic script,^[11] but despite similarities in shape and forms, this hypothesis has been widely rejected as unverifiable, largely because early tamgas are too poorly attested and understood to be subject to a thorough comparison.^[12]. The text is most likely derived from Aramaic via Sogdian alphabet and Graphic father Syriac alphabet.^[13]

Contemporary Chinese sources conflict as to whether the Turks had a written language by the 6th century. The 7th century Book of Zhou mentions that the Turks had a written language similar to that of the Sogdians. Two other sources, the Book of Sui and the History of the Northern Dynasties, claim that the Turks did not have a written language.^[14] According to István Vásáry, Old Turkic script was invented under the rule of the first khagans and was modelled after the Sogdian fashion.^[15] Several variants of the script came into being as early as the first half of the 6th century.^[16]

Corpus

The Old Turkic corpus consists of about two hundred^[17] inscriptions, plus a number of manuscripts.^[18] The inscriptions, dating from the 7th to 10th century, were discovered in present-day Mongolia (the area of the Second Turkic Khaganate and the Uyghur Khaganate that succeeded it), in the upper Yenisey basin of central-south Siberia, and in smaller numbers, in the Altay mountains and Xinjiang. The texts are mostly epitaphs (official or private), but there are also graffiti and a handful of short inscriptions found on archaeological artifacts, including a number of bronze mirrors.^[17]

The website of the Language Committee of Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan lists 54 inscriptions from the Orkhon area, 106 from the Yenisei area, 15 from the Talas area, and 78 from the Altai area. The most famous of the inscriptions are the two monuments (obelisks) which were erected in the Orkhon Valley between 732 and 735 in honor of the Göktürk prince Kül Tigin and his brother the emperor Bilge Kağan. The Tonyukuk inscription, a monument situated somewhat farther east, is slightly earlier, dating to c. 722. These inscriptions relate in epic language the legendary origins of the Turks, the golden age of their history, their subjugation by the Chinese (Tang-Gokturk wars), and their liberation by Bilge.^{[citation needed]}^[19]

The Old Turkic manuscripts, of which there are none earlier than the 9th century, were found in present-day Xinjiang and represent Old Uyghur, a different Turkic dialect from the one represented in the Old Turkic inscriptions in the Orkhon valley and elsewhere.^[17] They include Irk Bitig, a 9th-century manuscript book on divination.^[20]

Alphabet

Old Turkic being a synharmonic language, a number of consonant signs are divided into two "synharmonic sets", one for front vowels and the other for back vowels. Such vowels can be taken as intrinsic to the consonant sign, giving the Old Turkic alphabet an aspect of an abugida script. In these cases, it is customary to use superscript numerals ¹ and ² to mark consonant signs used with back and front vowels, respectively. This convention was introduced by Thomsen (1893), and followed by Gabain (1941), Malov (1951) and Tekin (1968).^{[citation needed]}

Vowels, with Yenisian variants
𐰀‎𐰁 𐰂‎ IPA: /ɑ/, /æ/ a, ä	𐰃‎𐰄‎ IPA: /ɯ/, /i/ ï/ı, i	𐰅‎ IPA: /e/ e	𐰆‎ IPA: /o/, /u/ o, u	𐰇‎𐰈‎ IPA: /ø/, /y/ ö, ü

Consonant sets, with Yenisian variants
Back vowels	𐰉‎𐰊‎ IPA: /b/ b¹	𐰑‎𐰒‎ IPA: /d/ d¹	𐰍‎𐰎‎ IPA: /ɢ/ γ/g¹	𐰞‎𐰟‎ IPA: /l/ l¹	𐰣‎ IPA: /n/ n¹	𐰺‎𐰻‎ IPA: /r/ r¹	𐰽‎ IPA: /s/ s¹	𐱃‎𐱄‎ IPA: /t/ t¹	𐰖‎𐰗‎ IPA: /j/ y¹/j¹	𐰴‎𐰵‎ IPA: /q/ q	𐰸‎𐰹‎ IPA: /oq/ oq^[a]
Front vowels	𐰋‎𐰌‎ IPA: /b/ b²	𐰓‎ IPA: /d/ d²	𐰏‎𐰐‎ IPA: /ɡ/ g/g²	𐰠‎ IPA: /l/ l²	𐰤‎𐰥‎ IPA: /n/ n²	𐰼‎ IPA: /r/ r²	𐰾‎ IPA: /s/ s²	𐱅‎𐱆‎ IPA: /t/ t²	𐰘‎𐰙‎ IPA: /j/ y²/j²	𐰚‎𐰛‎ IPA: /k/ k	𐰜‎𐰝‎ IPA: /øk/ ök^[b]
Others	𐰲‎𐰳‎ IPA: /tʃ/ č	𐰢‎ IPA: /m/ m	𐰯‎ IPA: /p/ p	𐱁‎𐱀 𐱂‎ IPA: /ʃ/ š^[c]	𐰔‎𐰕‎ IPA: /z/ z	𐰭‎𐰮 𐰬‎ IPA: /ŋ/ ñ, ň, ŋ	𐰱‎ IPA: /itʃ/, /tʃi/, /tʃ/ ič, či, č	𐰶‎𐰷‎ IPA: /ɯq/, /qɯ/, /q/ ıq, qı, q	𐰨‎𐰩‎ IPA: /ntʃ/ -nč	𐰪‎𐰫‎ IPA: /ɲ/ -nj, ny, ñ	𐰡‎ IPA: /lt/, /ld/ -lt
Others	𐰦‎𐰧‎ IPA: /nt/, /nd/ -nt	𐰿‎ IPA: /aʃ/ aš	𐱇‎ IPA: /ot/, /ut/ ot, ut^[d]	𐱈‎ IPA: /baʃ/ baš^[e]

^ Other transcriptions: uq, qo, qu, q, IPA: /oq/, /uq/, /qo/, /qu/, /q/
^ Other transcriptions: ük, kö, kü, k, IPA: /yk/, /kø/, /ky/, /k/
^ According to Gabain (1941)
^ According to Gabain (1941), but not listed in Thomsen (1893)
^ According to Tekin (1968), but not listed in Thomsen (1893) or Gabain (1941); Malov (1951) lists the sign but gives no sound value.

A colon-like symbol (U+205A ⁚ TWO DOT PUNCTUATION) is sometimes used as a word separator.^[21] In some cases a ring (U+2E30 ⸰ RING POINT) is used instead.^[21]

A reading example (right to left): 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃 transliterated t²ñr²i, this spells the name of the Turkic sky god, Täñri (/tæŋri/).

Variants

Examples of the Orkhon-Yenisei alphabet are depicted on the reverse of the Azerbaijani 5 manat banknote issued since 2006.^[22]

Oldest known Turkic alphabet listings, Ryukoku and Toyok manuscripts. Toyok manuscript transliterates Turkic alphabet into the Old Uyghur alphabet. Per Кызласов, Игорь Леонидович [in Russian] (1994). *Рунические письменности евразийских степей*. Восточная литература РАН. ISBN 978-5-02-017741-3.

Variants of the script were found from Mongolia and Xinjiang in the east to the Balkans in the west. The preserved inscriptions were dated to between the 8th and 10th centuries.

These alphabets are divided into four groups by Kyzlasov (1994)^[23]

Asiatic group (includes Orkhon proper)
Eurasiatic group
Southern Europe group

The Asiatic group is further divided into three related alphabets:

Orkhon alphabet, Göktürks, 8th to 10th centuries
Yenisei alphabet,
- Talas alphabet, a derivative of the Yenisei alphabet, Kangly or Karluks 8th to 10th centuries. Talas inscriptions include Terek-Say rock inscriptions found in the 1897, Koysary text, Bakaiyr gorge inscriptions, Kalbak-Tash 6 and 12 inscriptions, Talas alphabet has 29 identified letters.^[24]

The Eurasiatic group is further divided into five related alphabets:

Achiktash, used in Sogdia 8th to 10th centuries.
South-Yenisei, used by the Göktürks 8th to 10th centuries.
Two especially similar alphabets: the Don alphabet, used by the Khazars, 8th to 10th centuries; and the Kuban alphabet, used by the Bulgars, 8th to 13th centuries. Inscriptions in both alphabets are found in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and on the banks of the Kama river.
Tisza, used by the Pechenegs 8th to 10th centuries.

A number of alphabets are incompletely collected due to the limitations of the extant inscriptions. Evidence in the study of the Turkic scripts includes Turkic-Chinese bilingual inscriptions, contemporaneous Turkic inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, literal translations into Slavic languages, and paper fragments with Turkic cursive writing from religion, Manichaeism, Buddhist, and legal subjects of the 8th to 10th centuries found in Xinjiang.

Sample text

Transcription of part of Bilge Kağan's inscription (lines 36-38).

𐰖𐰕𐰸𐰞𐱃----: 𐰋𐰃𐰼𐰘𐰀: 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲𐰑𐰀: 𐱃𐰃: 𐰚𐰇𐰾𐰃:
𐰖𐰸: 𐰉𐰆𐰡𐰃: 𐰉𐰆: 𐰘𐰼𐰓𐰀: 𐰢𐰭𐰀: 𐰴𐰆𐰺: 𐰉𐰆𐰡𐰃:
𐰢𐰤: 𐰇𐰕𐰢: 𐰴𐰍𐰣: 𐰆𐰞𐰺𐱃𐰸𐰢: 𐰇𐰲𐰤: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:
𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣𐰍: ----𐰇----: 𐰴𐰞𐰢𐰑𐰢: 𐰃𐰠𐰏: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰇𐰏:
𐰘𐰏𐰓𐰃: 𐰴𐰕𐰍𐰦𐰢: 𐰃𐰑----: ----𐱅𐰃𐰼𐰠𐰯: 𐰘----:‎
𐰦𐰀: 𐰾𐰇𐰤𐱁𐰓𐰢: 𐰾𐰇𐰾𐰃𐰤: 𐰽𐰨𐰑𐰢: 𐰃𐰲𐰚𐰏𐰢𐰀:
𐰱𐰚𐰓𐰃: 𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣: 𐰉𐰆𐰡𐰃: 𐰇𐰠𐰏𐰢𐰀: 𐰇𐰠𐱅𐰃: 𐰾𐰠𐰭𐰀:
𐰸𐰆𐰑𐰃: 𐰖𐰆𐰺𐰯𐰣: 𐰴𐰺𐰍𐰣: 𐰶𐰃𐰽𐰞𐱃𐰀: 𐰋𐰃𐰤:
𐰉𐰺𐰴𐰃𐰤: 𐰦𐰀: 𐰉𐰆𐰕𐰑𐰢: ----: 𐰘𐱁𐰴𐰀: 𐰍𐰑𐰃:
𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰺: 𐰠𐱅𐰋𐰼: 𐰘𐰇𐰕𐰲𐰀: 𐰼𐰏: 𐰃𐰠𐰏𐰼𐰇: 𐱅𐰕𐰯:
𐰉𐰺𐰑𐰃: ----:‎
𐱅𐰃: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰: 𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣: 𐰀𐰲: 𐰼𐱅𐰃: 𐰆𐰞:
𐰘𐰃𐰞𐰴𐰃𐰍: 𐰞𐰯: 𐰃𐰏𐱅𐰢: 𐰆𐱃𐰕: 𐰺𐱃𐰸𐰃: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐱅:
𐰖𐱁𐰢𐰀: 𐰆𐰍𐰕: 𐱅𐰕𐰯: 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲𐰴𐰀: 𐰚𐰃𐰼𐱅𐰃:
𐰇𐰚𐰤𐰯: 𐰾𐰇𐰠𐰓𐰢: 𐰽𐰆𐰴𐰣: ----: 𐰆𐰍𐰞𐰃𐰤:
𐰖𐰆𐱃𐰕𐰃𐰤: 𐰦𐰀: 𐰞𐱃𐰢: 𐰚𐰃: 𐰠𐱅𐰋𐰼𐰠𐰏: 𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣:‎

Unicode

The Unicode block for Old Turkic is U+10C00–U+10C4F. It was added to the Unicode standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2. It includes separate "Orkhon" and "Yenisei" variants of individual characters.

Since Windows 8 Unicode Old Turkic writing support was added in the Segoe font.

Old Turkic^[1]^[2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+10C0x	𐰀	𐰁	𐰂	𐰃	𐰄	𐰅	𐰆	𐰇	𐰈	𐰉	𐰊	𐰋	𐰌	𐰍	𐰎	𐰏
U+10C1x	𐰐	𐰑	𐰒	𐰓	𐰔	𐰕	𐰖	𐰗	𐰘	𐰙	𐰚	𐰛	𐰜	𐰝	𐰞	𐰟
U+10C2x	𐰠	𐰡	𐰢	𐰣	𐰤	𐰥	𐰦	𐰧	𐰨	𐰩	𐰪	𐰫	𐰬	𐰭	𐰮	𐰯
U+10C3x	𐰰	𐰱	𐰲	𐰳	𐰴	𐰵	𐰶	𐰷	𐰸	𐰹	𐰺	𐰻	𐰼	𐰽	𐰾	𐰿
U+10C4x	𐱀	𐱁	𐱂	𐱃	𐱄	𐱅	𐱆	𐱇	𐱈
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 16.0 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b Scharlipp, Wolfgang (2000). An Introduction to the Old Turkish Runic Inscriptions. Verlag auf dem Ruffel, Engelschoff. ISBN 978-3-933847-00-3.
^ Old Turkic alphabetThe origins of the script Orochon
^ Sinor, Denis (2002). "Old Turkic". History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 331–333.
^ Vilhelm Thomsen, [Turkic] Orkhon Inscriptions Deciphered (Helsinki : Society of Finnish Literature Press, 1893). Translated in French and later English (Ann Arbor MI: University Microfilms Intl., 1971). OCLC 7413840
^ Brill, E. J. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Morocco - Ruzzīk. Volume 6: Brill. p. 911. ISBN 978-90-04-09792-6. Retrieved 7 August 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ Campbell, George; Moseley, Christopher (2013). The Routledge Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-135-22296-3.
^ Róna-Tas, András (1987). "On the Development and Origin of the East Turkic "Runic" Script". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 41 (1): 7–14. ISSN 0001-6446. JSTOR 23657716.
^ Cooper, J.S. (2004). "Babylonian beginnings: The origin of the cuneiform writing system in comparative perspective". In Houston, Stephen (ed.). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59.
^ Mabry, Tristan James (2015). Nationalism, Language, and Muslim Exceptionalism. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-8122-4691-9.
^ Kara, György (1996). "Aramaic scripts for Altaic languages". In Daniels, Peter; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
^ Aristov, N. (1896) Notes on Ethnic Composition of Turkic Tribes and People and Population Record. ZhS 3-4, 277-456
^ Tekin, Talat (1965). A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic - ProQuest. UNiversity of California, Los Angeles. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
^ Old Turkic script
^ Lung 龍, Rachel 惠珠 (2011). Interpreters in Early Imperial China. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-90-272-2444-6.
^ Tryjarski, Edward (2002). "Runes and runelike scripts of Eurasian area. Part 1". Archivum Ottomanicum. 20. Mouton: 49.
^ Sigfried J. de Laet, Joachim Herrmann, (1996), History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., p. 478
^ ^a ^b ^c Erdal, Marcel. 2004. A grammar of Old Turkic. Leiden, Brill. p. 7
^ Vasilʹiev, D.D. (1983). Графический фонд памятников тюркской рунической письменности азиатского ареала (опыт систематизации) [Graphical corpus of Turkic Runic writing monuments in the Asian area.] (in Russian). Leningrad: USSR Academy of Science. pp. 37, 45. Руника Восточного Туркестана представлена двояко: в виде рукописных текстов и как граффити на фресках и на штукатурке пещерных храмов в Турфанском оазисе. Образцы тюркского рунического письма на бумаге имеют особое значение, так как только к этой группе могут быть применены традиционные приемы и методы палеографического исследования. Эти памятники относятся к периоду расцвета древнеуйгурских городов и торговли, к периоду зарождения тюркской письменной литературы и науки. Функциональное изменение характера памятников может быть признано свидетельством возникшей потребности в более широком и утилитарном использовании рунической грамоты.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "TURK BITIG". bitig.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
^ Tekin, Talât (1993). Irk bitig = The Book of omens. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-03426-2. OCLC 32352166.
^ ^a ^b "The Unicode Standard, Chapter 14.8: Old Turkic" (PDF). Unicode Consortium. March 2020.
^ Central Bank of Azerbaijan. National currency: 5 manat. – Retrieved on 25 February 2010.
^ Kyzlasov I. L.; "Writings of Eurasian Steppes", Eastern Literature, Moscow, 1994, 327 pp. 321–323
^ Kyzlasov I. L.; "Writings of Eurasian Steppes", Eastern Literature, Moscow, 1994, pp. 98–100

Sources

Diringer, David. The Alphabet: a Key to the History of Mankind, New York, NY: Philosophical Library, 1948, pp. 313–315.
Erdal, Marcel. 2004. A grammar of Old Turkic. Leiden & Boston: Brill.
Guzev, V.G., Kljashtornyj, S.G. The Turkic Runic script: Is the hypothesis of its indigenous origin no more viable? Rocznik Orientalistyczny, T. 49, Z. 2 (1994), wyd. 1995 [19]
LFaulmann, Carl. 1990 (1880). Das Buch der Schrift. Frankfurt am Main: Eichborn. ISBN 3-8218-1720-8 (in German)
Février, James G. Histoire de l'écriture, Paris: Payot, 1948, pp. 311–317 (in French)
Ishjatms, N. "Nomads in Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN 92-3-102846-4
Jensen, Hans (1970). Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. ISBN 0-04-400021-9.
Kyzlasov, I.L. "Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes", Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, ISBN 5-02-017741-5
Malov, S.E. 1951, Pamjatniki Drevnitjurkskoj Pisʹmennosti (Памятники Древнитюркской Письменности), Moskva & Leningrad. (in Russian)
Muxamadiev, Azgar. (1995). Turanian Writing (Туранская Письменность). In Zakiev, M. Z.(Ed.), Problemy lingvoėtnoistorii tatarskogo naroda (Проблемы лингвоэтноистории татарского народа). Kazan: Akademija Nauk Tatarstana. (in Russian)
Róna-Tas, A. 1991. An introduction to Turkology. Szeged.
Tekin, Talat. A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 69 (Bloomington/The Hague: Mouton, 1968)
Thomsen, Vilhelm. Inscriptions de l'Orkhon déchiffrées, Suomalais-ugrilainen seura, Helsinki Toimituksia, no. 5 Helsingfors: La société de littérature Finnoise [1] (in French)
Vasilʹiev, D.D. Korpus tjurkskix runičeskix pamjatnikov Bassina Eniseja [Corpus of the Turkic Runic Monuments of the Yenisei Basin], Leningrad: USSR Academy of Science, 1983 (in Russian)
von Gabain, A. 1941. Alttürkische Grammatik mit Bibliographie, Lesestücken und Wörterverzeichnis, auch Neutürkisch. Mit vier Schrifttafeln und sieben Schriftproben. (Porta Linguarum Orientalium; 23) Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz. (in German)

External links

Türk bitig - Old Turkic inscriptions, Texts, Translations
Orkhon Alphabet page from Omniglot
Gokturkish Keyboard by Isa SARI
Old Turkic Virtual Keyboard by Pamukkale University
glyph table (kyrgyz.ru)
Everson, Michael (25 January 2008). "L2/08-071: Proposal for encoding the Old Turkic script in the SMP of the UCS" (PDF).
Хөх Түрүгийн Бичиг (in Mongolian)
Göktürükçe çevirici (An online converter for Turkish alphabet )

[oq-21] Other transcriptions: uq, qo, qu, q, IPA: /oq/, /uq/, /qo/, /qu/, /q/

[ok-22] Other transcriptions: ük, kö, kü, k, IPA: /yk/, /kø/, /ky/, /k/

[23] According to Gabain (1941)

[24] According to Gabain (1941), but not listed in Thomsen (1893)

[25] According to Tekin (1968), but not listed in Thomsen (1893) or Gabain (1941); Malov (1951) lists the sign but gives no sound value.

[Scharlipp-1] Scharlipp, Wolfgang (2000). An Introduction to the Old Turkish Runic Inscriptions. Verlag auf dem Ruffel, Engelschoff. ISBN 978-3-933847-00-3.

[2] Old Turkic alphabetThe origins of the script Orochon

[sinor-3] Sinor, Denis (2002). "Old Turkic". History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 331–333.

[4] Vilhelm Thomsen, [Turkic] Orkhon Inscriptions Deciphered (Helsinki : Society of Finnish Literature Press, 1893). Translated in French and later English (Ann Arbor MI: University Microfilms Intl., 1971). OCLC 7413840

[5] Brill, E. J. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Morocco - Ruzzīk. Volume 6: Brill. p. 911. ISBN 978-90-04-09792-6. Retrieved 7 August 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)

[6] Campbell, George; Moseley, Christopher (2013). The Routledge Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-135-22296-3.

[7] Róna-Tas, András (1987). "On the Development and Origin of the East Turkic "Runic" Script". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 41 (1): 7–14. ISSN 0001-6446. JSTOR 23657716.

[8] Cooper, J.S. (2004). "Babylonian beginnings: The origin of the cuneiform writing system in comparative perspective". In Houston, Stephen (ed.). The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59.

[9] Mabry, Tristan James (2015). Nationalism, Language, and Muslim Exceptionalism. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-8122-4691-9.

[10] Kara, György (1996). "Aramaic scripts for Altaic languages". In Daniels, Peter; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.

[11] Aristov, N. (1896) Notes on Ethnic Composition of Turkic Tribes and People and Population Record. ZhS 3-4, 277-456

[12] Tekin, Talat (1965). A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic - ProQuest. UNiversity of California, Los Angeles. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

[13] Old Turkic script

[14] Lung 龍, Rachel 惠珠 (2011). Interpreters in Early Imperial China. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-90-272-2444-6.

[15] Tryjarski, Edward (2002). "Runes and runelike scripts of Eurasian area. Part 1". Archivum Ottomanicum. 20. Mouton: 49.

[16] Sigfried J. de Laet, Joachim Herrmann, (1996), History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D., p. 478

[erdal-17] Erdal, Marcel. 2004. A grammar of Old Turkic. Leiden, Brill. p. 7

[18] Vasilʹiev, D.D. (1983). Графический фонд памятников тюркской рунической письменности азиатского ареала (опыт систематизации) [Graphical corpus of Turkic Runic writing monuments in the Asian area.] (in Russian). Leningrad: USSR Academy of Science. pp. 37, 45. Руника Восточного Туркестана представлена двояко: в виде рукописных текстов и как граффити на фресках и на штукатурке пещерных храмов в Турфанском оазисе. Образцы тюркского рунического письма на бумаге имеют особое значение, так как только к этой группе могут быть применены традиционные приемы и методы палеографического исследования. Эти памятники относятся к периоду расцвета древнеуйгурских городов и торговли, к периоду зарождения тюркской письменной литературы и науки. Функциональное изменение характера памятников может быть признано свидетельством возникшей потребности в более широком и утилитарном использовании рунической грамоты.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[19] "TURK BITIG". bitig.org. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2019.

[20] Tekin, Talât (1993). Irk bitig = The Book of omens. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-03426-2. OCLC 32352166.

[TUS-26] "The Unicode Standard, Chapter 14.8: Old Turkic" (PDF). Unicode Consortium. March 2020.

[27] Central Bank of Azerbaijan. National currency: 5 manat. – Retrieved on 25 February 2010.

[28] Kyzlasov I. L.; "Writings of Eurasian Steppes", Eastern Literature, Moscow, 1994, 327 pp. 321–323

[29] Kyzlasov I. L.; "Writings of Eurasian Steppes", Eastern Literature, Moscow, 1994, pp. 98–100

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Old Turkic script

Origins

Corpus

Alphabet

Variants

Sample text

Unicode

See also

References

Citations

Sources

External links

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