魯凱語文法 (Rukai grammar )為基於魯凱語 之文法。在文法的分類上台灣南島語言 並不同於一般的分析語 或其它综合语 裡的動詞、名詞、形容詞、介詞和副詞等之基本詞類 分類。比如台灣南島語裡普遍沒有副詞,而副詞的概念一般以動詞方式呈現、可稱之為「副動詞」,類之於俄语 裡的副動詞。[ 1] 對於數 、格 (附著)及时态 改變時語詞 的變化。魯凱語只有代詞 本身會依格位 之不同而進行变格 運作。謂語 本身不會依人称 、数 、性 之變化而進行变位 運作;而是基於已然語氣 及非已然語氣 、以主事(AF)及非主事(NAF)的觀點結合時體氣 語詞(TAM/TMA/動貌詞),再配合謂語的时态 、体 、式 進行形態變化 來運作。
基本的文法分類是將魯凱語詞類之詞綴、字詞結構及分類法,對比分析語 等之詞類分類法加以條析判別。[ 2] [ 3] [ 4] [ 5] [ 6]
詞彙與構詞
構詞方法
基本上萬山魯凱語音節採用一種基本的(C)V 構詞,通常詞構有2到4個音節(Zeitoun 2007)。有4種構詞程序。
加詞綴(affixation)
語根修飾(stem modification)
重複詞(reduplication/RED)
複合詞(compounding)
下列重複範式是產生在霧台魯凱語裡[ 7] :
重複名詞語根
N + RED '大量'
N(數詞、或時段) + RED '延長一陣子...'
重複動詞語根
V + RED '繼續,繼續做,重複做'
V + RED '未來式'
V (靜態詞) + RED '強烈,比較大'
在霧台魯凱語裡,附著式的語根重覆能夠被用來產生若干基本的名詞及動詞,比如:'打雷'、'山' ,以及 '刮擦'[ 7] 。
詞綴
下列為萬山魯凱語的詞綴 來自齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。
a- 'when'
a- (action/state nominalization)
a- 'plural'
-a 'beyond (in time or space)'
-a 'irrealis'
-a 'imperative'
-ae (state nominalization)
a- ... -ae; allomorph: ... -ae (objective nominalization; negative imperative)
amo- 'will'
-ane (meaning unknown; used on verbs to insult someone)
-a-nga 'imperative' (mild requests)
apaa- 'reciprocal causative' (dynamic verbs)
apano- 'like to, prone to, have a tendency to'
apa'a 'reciprocal causative' (stative verbs)
apa'ohi- 'split (causative form)'
-ci 'snivel'
dh- 'invisible'
i- 'at'
-i 'irrealis'
-i- ... -e (marking of the oblique case on personal and impersonal pronouns)
-ka 'predicative negation'
ka- 'in fact, indeed, actually'
ka- ... -ae 'genuine, real, original'
kala- ... -ae 'temporal nominalization'
kapa ~ kama- 'continuously'
kapa ... -nga 'all, every'
ki- 'modal negation'
ki- ... -ae 'whose'
k<in>-a- ... -ae 'more and more'
la- 'plural'
la-ma'a- 'reciprocal'
-lo 'plural' (demonstrative pronouns)
m- (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with k-, p-, or Ø in its non-finite form)
ma- (stative (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with ka- in its non-finite form)
ma- ... -le (forms 'tens')
ma-Ca- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with pa-Ca; Ca refers to the reduplication of the first consonant)
maa- 'reciprocity' (dynamic (finite and subjunctive) verbs; alternates with paa)
maa- ... -e (~ paa- ... -e; maa- (dual reciprocal) + -e (meaning unknown))
maaraka- 'each/both'
maatali- ... -le/-lo '(a number of) floors'
maka- 'finish'
maka- ... -le/-lo (~ paka- ... -le/-lo) 'up to N-/for N- days/months/years'
maka'an- (attaches only to aleve 'below' and lrahalre 'above')
makini- ... -(a)e (~ pakini- ... -(a)e) 'all'
mali- (~ pali) 'along'
ma'ohi (~ pa'ohi) 'split'
m-o- (~ o-) 'holds X's ritual (where X = household name)' (attaches to household names to form dynamic verbs)
m-o- (~ o-) 'toward'
mo- 'anti-causative'
m-ore (~ ore-) 'perform'
mota'a- (~ ota'a-) 'raise'
n- 'visible'
-na 'still'
naa- 'continuously'
-nae 'place where'
-nae 'time when'
-nga 'already'
-nga 'superlative'
ni- 'counterfactuality (irrealis)'
ni- ... -a 'concessive'
o- 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
o- ... -e 'dress well' (derives verbs from nouns)
o-ara- 'only' (attached to verbs)
o-ka'a- ... -le/-lo (~ ko'a- ... -le/-lo) 'a number of )recipients'
om- (~ m- / ~ Ø) 'dynamic / finite / realis / active'
o-tali (~ tali- / ~ toli) 'wrap up, pack up'
o-tali (~ tali-) 'made of'
o-tara- (~ tara-) 'a number of months / years'
taro- (doublet form: tao-) 'group of persons in movement'
o-ta'i- (~ ta'i-) 'precede'
o-'ara- (~ 'ara-) 'early'
pa- 'causative'
pa- 'every N-times'
paori 'stick to, think about'
pa'a- ... -ae '(what is) left'
pe- 'forbiddance (?)'
pi- 'local causative'
po- 'causative of movement'
po- 'bear, grow N' (attaches to nouns)
saka- 'external'
samori- 'keep on ... -ing' (attaches only to the root kane 'to eat')
sa'api- 'prone to, inclined to'
so- 'tribute'
ta- (subjective nominalization)
ta- 'inalienability' (kinship and color terms)
ta- ... -(a)e 'place where'
ta- ... -ae 'time when'
ta- ... -n-ae (forms derived locative nominal)
taka- 'a number of persons'
tako- 'while'
tala- 'container' (?; found only with the root ove'eke )
tali- 'belong to'
ta'a- 'with (a group of persons)'
ta'a- ... -le/-lo 'measure with an extended arm' (bound numerals)
to- 'do, make, produce, build'
toka- ... -(a)e 'use ... for, by ... -ing'
to'a- 'use ... to, for'
'a- 'instrument/manner nominalizer'
'a- ... -e 'have a lot of'
'aa- 'turn into'
'aka- 'Nth' (ordinal prefix 'a- + stative marker ka- (non-finite form))
'ako- (doublet form: 'ako- ... -ae) 'speak (out)'
'ako- 'barely, a little'
'ako- ... -le 'say a number of times'
'ako- ... -nga 'more'
'ali- 'from (in time or space)' (< 'aliki '(come) from')
'ano- 'walk, ride, take'
'ano- 'unknown meaning' (only attaches to stative roots)
'ano-Ca- 'along/with a number of persons (in movement)' (attaches to bound numeral forms and certain other roots)
'ano- ... -ae 'entirely, completely, cease, alleviate'
'ao- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth time' (ordinal prefix 'a- + 'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times')
'apaka- ... -le/-lo 'the Nth day' (ordinal prefix 'a- + paka- ... -le/-lo 'up to/for a number of days / months / years)
'api- 'like ... -ing'
'a-po- 'as a result of'
'apo- 'come out'
'asa- ... -ae 'what's the use of'
'asi- (meaning unknown; found only once in the word 'work')
'i- 'passive'
'i- 'verbalizer' (from nouns; polysemous prefix). Semantic core of 'i-N is 'get, obtain-N', although it can also be glossed as 'get, harvest, gather, look after, bear, have for, kill, etc.'
'i- 'put on, wear' (derives verbs from nouns)
'ia- ... ae 'because of, out of'
'ini- 'movement toward'
'ini- 'cross'
'ini- 'consume'
'ini-Ca- '(one)self' (reflexive)
'ini- ... -ae 'pretend'
'ini- ... (-ae) 'behave like, look like' (derived from 'inilrao 'resemble')
'ira- 'for' (derived from 'iraki '(do) for')
'o- 'take off'
'o- ... -le/-lo 'a number of times' (attaches to bound numerals)
'o- ... -le/-lo 'measure' (must be followed by certain words to indicate a measure with the hand, foot, ruler, etc.)
'o-tali 'unpack'
下列霧台魯凱語詞綴參考自(Comparative Austronesian Dictionary 1995)。
名詞詞綴
ka- ... -anə + N 'something real or genuine
ko- + Pronoun 'nominative'
moasaka- + N (numeral) 'ordinal'
sa- ... anə + V 'instrument, tool'
sa- + N 'some body parts'
ta- ... -anə + N 'location, time'
ta-ra + N 'agentive, a person specialised in...'
動詞詞綴
-a- + V 'realis'
-a + V 'imperative'
ki- + N 'to gather, to collect, to harvest'
ki- + V 'dative-focus, involuntary action'
ko- + N 'to remove, to peel'
ko- + V 'intransitive, patient-focus'
ma- + V 'mutual, reciprocal'
maa- + V 'stative'
mo- + N 'to discharge, remove'
mo- + V '(to go) self-motion, non-causative'
ŋi- + V 'to act or to move in a certain direction or manner'
ŋo- + N 'to ride'
pa- + V 'causative'
si- + V (bound stem) 'verbal prefix'
si- + N 'to wear, to carry, to possess'
so- + N 'to spit, to clean, to give out'
to- + N 'to make, produce, bring forth'
θi + N 'to release'
w- + V 'agent-focus, verbal prefix'
詞類類別
齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)將萬山魯凱語分為11類語詞:
功能詞
下列萬山魯凱語功能詞來自齊莉莎(Zeitoun 2007)。
基本句型及詞序
不像大多數其它台灣南島語言 ,魯凱語為主賓格語言 、而不是典型的焦點系統 之作格語言 形式 (Zeitoun 2007)。魯凱語也是台灣南島語裡唯一「沒有焦點系統」的語言。[ 9] 於語言的演進上、如果沒有焦點 (focus )則往往會往「主賓格語言(AS-O)」的方向發展,不過有時「對格語言」也會含有「部份作格性 (A-SO)」的現象或則反之亦然。總結在
萬山魯凱語有兩種句型(Zeitoun 2007):
名詞化
動詞化
補語化採用4種策略(Zeitoun 2007):
零策略(zero strategy,比如:並列補語)
動詞連續化(verb serialization)
名物化(nominalization)
使役動詞化(causativization)
限定受詞在主動及被動句子裡均可作主題。
格位標記、句法關係及代名詞系統
代名詞系統
魯凱語代詞有人稱代詞 ,指示代詞等。且人稱代詞也兼具有格位標記 之功能。台灣南島語除鄒語 及巴宰語 等之外,絕大多數無第3人稱(單複數)主格附著格式。[ 10] 下列代名詞表來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 1997)。[ 11] 要注意的是萬山魯凱語經常使用附著式。
霧台魯凱語人稱代詞
人稱代名詞形式
主題格
主格
斜格
屬格
第1人稱單數
kunaku
-(n)aku, naw-
nakuanə
-li
第2人稱單數
kusu
-su
musuanə
-su
第3人稱單數(視界)
kuini
–
inianə
-ini
第3人稱單數(非視界)
kuiɖa
–
–
–
第1人稱複數(包括式)
kuta
-ta
mitaanə
-ta
第1人稱複數(排除式)
kunai
-nai
naianə
-nai
第2人稱單數
kunumi
-numi, -nu
numianə
-numi
第3人稱複數(視界)
kuini
–
inianə
-ini
第3人稱複數(非視界)
kuiɖa
–
–
–
茂林魯凱語人稱代詞
人稱代名詞形式
主題格
主格
斜格
屬格
第1稱單數
i kɨkɨ
ku-, kɨkɨ
ŋkua
-li
第2人稱單數
i musu
su-, musu
sua
-su
第3人稱單數(視界)
i kini
kini
nia
-ini
第3人稱單數(非視界)
i kiɖi
kiɖi
ɖia
-ɖa
第1人稱複數(包括式)
i miti
ta-, miti
mitia
-ta
第1人稱複數(排除式)
i knamɨ
namɨ-, knamɨ
nmaa
-namɨ
第2人稱複數
i mumu
mu-, mumu
mua
-mu
第3人稱複數(視界)
i kini
kini
nia
-ini
第3人稱複數(非視界)
i kiɖi
kiɖi
ɖia
-ɖa
萬山魯凱語人稱代詞
人稱代名詞形式
主題格
主格
斜格
屬格
第1人稱單數
iɭaə
-ɭao, nao-
-i-a-ə
-li
第2人稱單數
imiaʔə
-moʔo
i-miaʔ-ə
-ʔo
第3人稱單數(視界)
ana
–
-i-n-ə
-(n)i
第3人稱單數(非視界)
ðona
–
-i-ð-ə
-ða
第1人稱複數(包括式)
imitə, ita
-mita, -ta
-i-mit-ə
-ta
第1人稱複數(排除式)
inamə
-nai
-i-nam-ə
-nai
第2人稱複數
inomə
-nomi
-i-nom-ə
-nomi
第3人稱複數(視界)
ana-lo
–
-i-l-i-n-ə
-l-i-ni
第3人稱複數(非視界)
ðona-lo
–
-i-l-i-ð-ə
-l-i-ða
動詞
下列為萬山魯凱語的動詞詞綴來自齊莎莉(Zeitoun 2007)。
動態動詞:o- ;較稀少的表示為 om- and m-
靜態動詞:ma-
否定前綴:ki-
使役式:pa-
ʔini-Ca- "(一個人)自身"
mati- "好的…"
k-in-a ... aə "…較多"
ʔako- "勉強地,僅僅"
ka- "事實上"
mata ... aə "確切地"
參見
註釋
^ 張永利,"台灣南島語言語法:語言類型與理論的啟示(Kavalan)"[1] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ), 語言學門熱門前瞻研究,2010年12月/12卷1期,pp.112-127.
^ Barbara B.H. Partee, A.G. ter Meulen, R. Wall,"Mathematical Methods in Linguistics (Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy)(語言研究的數學方法)"[2] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 )[3] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ),Springer,1/e 1993 edition(April 30, 1990). ISBN 9027722455 ,ISBN 978-9027722454
^ А. А. Реформатский, "Введение в Язковедение", Аспект Пресс--Москва, 1996. ISBN 5-7567-0046-3 ,ISBN 9785756700466
^ R.M.W.Dixon,"The Rise and Fall of Languages"[4] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ),Cambridge University Press (January 13, 1998). ISBN 978-0521626545 ISBN 0521626544
^ Paul J. Hooper,Elizabeth Closs Traugott,"Grammaticalization(語法化/語法化學說)"[5] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ),Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (August 25, 2003). ISBN 0521804213 ISBN 978-0521804219
^ ,Joan Bybee, Revere Perkins, William Pagliuca,"The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World(語法的演化--世界語言的時,體和情態)"[6] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ),University of Chicago Press; 1 edition (November 15, 1994). ISBN 978-0226086651
^ 7.0 7.1 [www.trussel2.com/ACD Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, web edition]
Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel 2010: revision 12/17/2016
^ Elizabeth Zeitoun,Stacy Fang-ching Teng, and Raleigh Ferrell,"Reconstruction of '2' in PAn and Related Issues"[7] [失效連結 ] ,Academia Sinica,Language and Linguistics/11.4:853-884,2010.
^ 李壬癸院士,"台灣南島語言的奧秘"[8] (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ),中研院語言所,2007.
^ 李壬癸院士,"珍惜台灣南島語言",前衛出版社,2010-1,p.201.ISBN 9789578016354
^ Zeitoun, Elizabeth. 1997. The Pronominal System of Mantauran (Rukai) (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ). Oceanic Linguistics, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Dec., 1997), pp. 312–346.
參考文獻
沈家煊,"名詞和動詞"(Of Noun and Verb),北京商務印書館,2016年6月. ISBN 978-7-100-11363-2
Elizabeth Zeitoun. 2007. A grammar of Mantauran (Rukai) . Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series A4-2. xviii + 551 pp. ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
Elizabeth Zeitoun(齊莉莎),"萬山魯凱語語法"[9] ,中央研究院語言學研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 978-986-01-1219-1
齊莉莎(Elizabeth Zeitoun)/林惠娟,"不要忘記咱們萬山的故事:過去的回憶"[10] ,中央研究院語言學研究所,November 30/2007.ISBN 957-01-5587-6
齊莉莎,"魯凱語萬山方言名物化結構探究(Nominalization in Mantauran (Rukai))",中央研究院語言學研究所,(3:1附冊期),2002-01.
帥德樂,"南島語的「焦點屈折」是詞彙衍生:名物化的證據(Austronesian ‘Focus’ as Derivation: Evidence from Nominalization)",中央研究院語言學研究所,(3:1附冊期),pp.427-479,2002-01.
外部連結