March 23 – Five-year-old Trần Thiếu Đế is forced to abdicate as ruler of Đại Việt (modern-day Vietnam), in favour of his maternal grandfather and court official Hồ Quý Ly, ending the Trần dynasty after 175 years and starting the Hồ dynasty. Hồ Quý Ly subsequently changes the country's name to Đại Ngu.
April 25 – Jingnan campaign: In the Shandong province of Ming dynasty China, Zhu Di, Prince of Yan, defeats the Imperial forces of General Li Jinglong in the two-day Battle of Baigou River, by taking advantage of the chaos that results when a gust of wind breaks the staff of General Li's flag of battle. The Yan forces capture 100,000 of the Imperial soldiers as prisoners and Li and the others retreat to Jinan.
April – King Swa Saw Ke, of Ava, the largest kingdom in Burma, dies after a reign of 33 years and is succeeded by his son, King Tarabya, who reigns less than seven months before being assassinated.
June 5 – Duke Frederick I of Brunswick-Lüneburg is assassinated after being identified as a rival to Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick, on his way back from a May 22 meeting of the prince-electors, is ambushed by a party of men led by Count Henry of Waldeck while passing through the village of Kleinenglis in the Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont (now part of the German state of Hesse, near Borken).
July 26 – Jagiellonian University is re-established in Kraków by order of King Władysław II, with the creation of the Faculty of Theology at what is then called the Kraków Academy. The restoration is partially financed by the sale of jewelry owned by the King's late wife, Queen Jadwiga, who had died in 1399.
August 6 – Writing from Newcastle upon Tyne to Scotland's King Robert III, England's King Henry IV sends a demand that King Robert meet him "on Monday the 23rd of this present month of August, at Edinburgh, where, for this reason and for the peace of tranquility of the realms of England and Scotland, we intend to be," for Robert "to perform the obligation which you owe us" as "overlords of Scotland and of its kings in all temporal matters pertaining to them..." King Henry warns that "considering the effusion of Christian blood and other dangers and losses which may occur if you do not comply with our wishes, you will be present to render us homage and take the oath of fealty." [1]
August 14 – King Henry IV leads the English Army into Scotland, after receiving no answer from Scotland's King Robert III to his August 6 demand. The troops reach Haddington, East Lothian the next day and at Leith, on the outskirts of Edinburgh, by August 18. As historian James Hamilton Wylie will note almost 500 years later, "the walls of Edinburgh did not fall before this ram's-horn blast, and August 23rd came and went without the required homage or recognition."[2]
August 20 – Meeting at the Lahneck Castle in what is now the German state Rhineland-Palatinate, the princes of the German states vote to depose the Holy Roman Emperor, Wenceslaus, due to his weak leadership and mental illnesses.
October 7 – Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, stops between Malatya and Aleppo at the Turkish garrison in Behesna. According to author Peter Purton, the garrison "had the temerity to shoot a catapult ball at Timur which rolled into his tent. Setting up his own battery of 20 machines, it is said that the first shot hit and destroyed the offending weapon. Treating this as a good omen, the attack was launched, the towers mined... and the place surrendered."[3]
November 2 – The Mamluk Sultanate surrenders the city of Aleppo and Tamerlane's Army massacres many of the inhabitants.[5]
November 25 – (9th waxing of Nadaw, 730 ME) Minkhaung I becomes the new King of Ava, the largest kingdom in what is now northern Myanmar, after a battle for power that follows the assassination of the erratic King Tarabya.
December 25 – In China, the Jingnan campaign of Prince Zhu Di of Yan suffers a serious reversal at the Battle of Dongchang as Imperial General Sheng Yong, replacement of Li Jinglong, encircles the Yan forces. Yan Army General Zhang Yu is killed, but Zhu Di is able to escape to the northern capital at Beijing and regroups his forces for a second attack to take place in February.
In modern-day Korea, King Jeongjong of Joseon abdicates in fear of an attack by his ambitious younger brother, Taejong. Taejong succeeds to the throne.
January 20 – The Parliament of England is opened at Westminster by King Henry IV.
February 3 – The Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, who has spent almost two months in England as the guest of King Henry IV, accepts a payment of 3,000 English gold marks in support of an alliance between the two nations, then makes plans to depart England for France.[10]
Jingnan campaign: After a month's recovery from defeat in battle in China, Prince Zhu Di mobilizes his troops at Beijing and marches south to fight the Ming dynasty Jianwen Emperor.[9]
March 2 – William Sawtrey, a Roman Catholic priest and adherent to the Lollard faith becomes the first person in England to be burned at the stake under the new De heretico comburendo law (officially the Suppression of Heresy Act 1400), dying at Smithfield, London after being convicted of heresy against the Roman Catholic faith.[11]
March 10 – As the English Parliament session closes, King Henry IV gives royal assent to the Suppression of Heresy Act, permitting secular authorities to carry out punishment for religious crimes. The assent comes after the Archbishop of Canterbury pressures King Henry to outlaw the Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe, and criminalizes possession of a copy of Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.
March 13 – The Samogitians, supported by Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, rebel against the Teutonic knights and burn two castles. Vytautas is granted increased autonomy by King Jogaila of the Poland–Lithuania union.
April 28 – King Zsigmond of Hungary refuses to comply with demands of the Archbishop John Kanizsai and the Palatine Derek Bebek, he is taken prisoner. Sigismund remains captive until October 29.
May 6 – The council of the Republic of Venice passes a law prohibiting the Republic's executive, the Doge, from using the state owned official ship, the bucentaur, from being used for private purposes.[14]
June 25 – The Schaffhausen massacre of 30 Jewish residents, by burning, of the town of Schaffhausen takes place in Switzerland after the April 3 murder of 4-year-old Konrad Lori.[15]
July 9 – (27 Dhu al-Qadah 803 A.H.) Timur raids the city of Baghdad, in the Jalayirid Empire, then carries out a massacre of its inhabitants, including women and children, as punishment for resisting his rule. According to accounts later, "90,000 human heads were piled up on the public places of the town."[16] The only persons spared death are "theologians, shaikhs and dervishes", and the only buildings not demolished are "mosques, universities and hostels."[17]
December 2 – Jingnan campaign: Rebel General Zhu Di adopts a new approach in his war against the Chinese Imperial troops and departs from Beiping to drive troops southward to the Yangtze River, capturing Dong'e, Dongping, Wenshang, and Pei over the next two months.[9]
February 8 – The Great Comet of 1402 is first observed by people living in the Northern Hemisphere of Earth.[21] The comet, visible for eight days even in daylight, makes its closest approach to Earth on February 20. It is last seen on March 27.
February 19 – Sigismund of Křižanov, Prokop of Luxemburg and King Wenceslas IV of Bohemia carry out an unsuccessful raid on the military garrison of Jihlava in an attack against the Kingdom of Croatia, led by Sigismund of Luxembourg.[22] The Bohemians are routed, and Wenceslas is captured.
June 3 – Jingnan campaign: After crossing the Huai River into what is now Jiangsu province, and taking Yangzhou (May 18) and Luhe (May 19), the Yan Army of Zhu Di crosses the Yangtze River at Guazhou and is within striking distance of the Imperial Chinese capital at Nanjing by June 8, forcing Emperor Zhu Yun Wen to prepare terms of surrender that include granting the Yan Kingdom areas north of the Yangtze. Zhu Di refuses.[25]
June 13 – Jingnan campaign: The Army of Yan arrives at the walls of Nanjing, capital of Imperial China and surrounds the city. The defenders on the north side open the Jinchuan Gate and let the invaders in. The Emperor Zhu Yun Wen then orders for the palace to be set on fire with himself and his followers burned to death inside before the Yan King Zhu Di arrives. Zhu Di orders the execution of 29 palace officials.[25]
June 14 – Zhu Di, King of the Yan State at Beijing, becomes the new Ming Dynasty Emperor of China at Nanjing, uniting north and south China.[25]
Battle of Bryn Glas: Welsh rebels under Owain Glyndŵr defeat the English on the England/Wales border.[26] The Welsh capture Edmund Mortimer, son of the 3rd Earl, who defects to the Welsh cause, on 30 November marrying Owain's daughter Catrin.
September 30 – The new session of the English Parliament is opened by King Henry IV and lasts for almost two months.
October–December
October 1 – The House of Commons of England is opened at Coventry by King Henry IV, whose Lord Chancellor asks the members to pass a tax to support an offensive war against Scotland, enemies of Wales, Ireland and for defending the Marches of Guienne and Calais. Henry Redford is elected Speaker of the House.
October 10 – A rare conference begins in England between the House of Commons and the House of Lords takes place with the permission of the King, and results in a 3-shilling tax on wine and a 14-pence tax on other merchandise.
November 25 – The fourth parliament of King Henry IV of England closes at Westminster after two months and the passage of new laws, including the penal Laws against Wales which stop the Welsh from gathering together, obtaining office, carrying arms and living in English towns. The laws apply to any Englishman who marries a Welsh woman.
December 2 – (6 Jumada al-Awwal 805 A.H.) With 4,000 troops, Tamerlane, Amir of the Timurid Empire covering much of what is now Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan begins the Siege of Smyrna (now Izmir in Turkey). Smyrna is captured after two days of attacks on its outer walls.[30] After the Christian Knights of Saint John, who are ruling Smyrna, refuse to convert to Islam or pay tribute, Timur has the entire Christian population massacred. The Knights subsequently begin building Bodrum Castle in Bodrum, to defend against future attacks.
Conchobar an Abaidh mac Maelsechlainn O Cellaigh succeeds Maelsechlainn mac William Buidhe O Cellaigh, as King of Uí Maine in modern-day County Galway and County Roscommon in Ireland.
January 23 – The Yongle Era in China begins with the first day of the Chinese New Year, six months after King Zhu Di of the Yan State arrived at Nanjing, deposed the southern Chinese Emperor Jianwen, and proclaimed himself as the Emperor Yongle.
April 1 – Prince Henry of England, son of King Henry IV, is appointed by his father to serve for one year as the Royal Lieutenant of Wales, with command over English toops to fight the Welsh rebels.[33]
April 3 – Jean II Le Maingre of France, also known as Boucicaut, the French Governor of Genoa, leads a fleet of 18 ships, 600 horses and 700 infantry to stop an attack by Muslims on the island of Cyprus and the city of Famagusta. Boucicaut besieges the Muslim city of Candelore on June 24.[34]
June 14 – The Emperor Manuel II restores Matthew I as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, leader of the Eastern Orthodox Christians. Matthew had been deposed the previous autumn during the Emperor's absence from Byzantium.[36]
June 15 – John III of Soltaniyeh, an Domincan friar of the Roman Catholic Church, arrives in Paris as an emissary of the conqueror Timur, Emir of Transoxiana, in order to secure an agreement with King Charles VI of France in order to open trade relations between the two nations.[37]
August 5 – The coronation of Ladislaus of Naples as King of Hungary and Croatia takes place in Zara (now Zadar in Croatia), where Ladislaus had arrived on July 19. His reign lasts less than four months before he is deposed.[38]
October 18 – An English fleet organised by John Hawley of Dartmouth and Thomas Norton of Bristol seizes seven French merchant vessels in the English Channel.[41]
commissions the Yongle Encyclopedia, one of the world's earliest and largest known general encyclopedias.
orders his coastal provinces to build a vast fleet of ships, with construction centered at Longjiang near Nanjing; the inland provinces are to provide wood and float it down the Yangtze River.
Tadhg Ruadh mac Maelsechlainn O Cellaigh succeeds Conchobar an Abaidh mac Maelsechlainn O Cellaigh, as King of Hy-Many, in present-day counties Galway and Roscommon.
Maolmhordha mac Con Connacht succeeds Giolla Iosa mac Pilib, as King of East Breifne, in present-day counties Leitrim and Cavan.
probable – Ououso becomes King of Nanzan, in present-day south Okinawa, Japan.
February 10 – Thomas of Lancaster, the second son of King Henry IV of England, becomes the "Admiral of the North and South", succeeding Admiral Thomas Beaufort.[47]
March 1 – Under the new Emperor Yongle, China continues to build its fleet, ordering the construction of 50 new seagoing ships from the Capital Guards in Nanjing.[49]
March 20 – As the English Parliament adjourns, King Henry IV gives royal assent to acts that have passed, including the Multipliers Act, which declares "It shall be felony to use the craft of multiplication of gold or silver.", prohibiting any alchemists who has actually may have discovered how to perform transmutation of other substances into precious metals. The law remains in force until repealed 284 years later.
August 25 – King Henry IV of England summons a new parliament, to open on October 16.
September 14 – Albert IV, Duke of Austria, dies at the age of 26 from an illness contracted while he was fighting against Bohemia and Moravia for control of the city of Znaim (now Znojmo in the Czech Republic).[57] He is succeeded as Duke by his 6-year old son, Albert.
October 17 – Cosimo de' Migliorati, Cardinal of the Basilica Cross in Jerusalem, is elected unanimously by eight cardinals to succeed the late Pope Boniface IX. Migliorati takes the papal name Pope Innocent VII as the 204th pope of the Roman Catholic Church.[58]
November 13 – England's "Unlearned Parliament" closes its session, the sixth during the reign of King Henry IV.
January 19 – Upon the death of Prince Sigismund of Anhalt-Dessau (now within the federal state of Saxony-Anhalt in southeastern Germany), his four sons Waldemar IV, George, Albert V and Sigismund II become the joint rulers of the principality. Upon the death of Waldemar in 1417, Sigismund in 1452, and Albert in 1469, George will reign alone for five more years until his death in 1469.
February 20 – Khalil Sultan becomes the new ruler of the western side of the Timurid Empire upon the death of his grandfather, the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane, while the son of Tamerlane, Shah Rukh, becomes the ruler of the eastern side.
March 18 – News reaches the Timurid Empire that Tamerlane has died, and a period of mourning begins as Tamerlane is interred at the Gur-e-Amirmausoleum in Samarkand, now in the Republic of Uzbekistan.[60]
December 21 – King Henry IV of England summons the members of the "Long Parliament", the sixth session of the English House of Commons and the House of Lords, to assemble at Westminster on "March 1, 1405", the "old style" date for March 1, 1406.
January 16 – After the Venetian Republic is victorious in the War of Padua, Francesco Novello da Carrara, the Venetian Consejo de i Diexe (Council of Ten) concludes that Novello and his sons are too dangerous to be left alive.[70] Novello is taken from his cell at the Doge's Palace, where he has been held since November 23, and is strangled to death.[71] His sons Francesco and Giacomo are executed the next day.
February 23 – (4 Ramadan 808 AH) Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir is forced to retreat from the forces of Khalil Sultan after attempting an invasion of Transoxiana during the confusion after the death of Tamerlane.[74]
February 26 – The Scottish Parliament issues a proclamation that during meetings of the body "a lighted lantern is to be hung outsideeach house every night in the high streets and lanes." [75]
March 22 – On "Monday before the Annunciation", Prince James, the 10-year-old son of King Robert III of Scotland, is captured while being taken across the English Channel from Scotland to France when the ship he is on, Maryenknyght, by privateers Hugh atte Fen, William Oxeney, John Hacon and Nicholas Steyward of Cley.[76] The crown prince is delivered to London where he is held hostage by King Henry IV of England for the next 18 years.
Tran Thien Binh, pretender to the throne of Vietnam (at the time, Dai Ngu) arrives from China, accompanied by an emissary from China, at the invitation of the Emperor Hồ Hán Thương. After crossing into Lang Son, Tran Thien Binh and the Chinese ambassador are killed by King Ho Han Thuong's troops, triggering a war with China.[77]
May 21 – Pope Innocent VII issues the bull Piae Postulatio to protect the charity and hospice of Santa Maria dell'Anima (Saint Mary of the Soul), located in Rome and serving the German-speaking community.
June 4 – The Chinese merchant Chen Yanxiang and his crew of 121 people depart from Java to Korea on the pretext of being Java's ambassador to Korea.[80] His djong ship carries with it with various Southeast Asian products, including parrots, peacocks, agarwood, camphor, and black pepper.
July 16 – In China's invasion of Vietnam, the Chinese imperial court issues the "Edict to Invade Annam", listing "20 formal reasons" for preparing to conquer the Kingdoms of Annam and Dai Ngu.[82]
August 14 – Chen Yanxiang and his crew of 121 people, sailing to Korea for trading, come under attack by 15 ships of Japanese pirates (Wokou) off of the coast of Gunsan. After a two day battle, 80 of the crew are dead and the ship is looted, but remains with Chen. The 40 survivors are able to reach the Korean shore.[80]
October 7 – French troops comprising 1,000 men at arms land on the Channel Island of Jersey, and fight a battle against 3,000 defenders.[85]
October 12 – Chen Yanxiang and his surviving crew are hosted by King Taejong of Korea at Seoul. The State Council (Uijongbu) verifies in a letter to the rulers of Java confirming that the Korean ship had been attacked.[80]
October 27 – In gratitude to the King of Korea, Chinese merchant Chen Yanxiang trades his ship to Korea for a smaller vessel, then departs Korea, but runs into a storm while approaching Japan's Seto Inland Sea.[80]
February 21 – Ming–Việt War: Hồ Nguyên Trừng, commander of the Vietnamese armada of 500 ships, launches a counterattack on invading Chinese ships on the Thai Binh River, but the Chinese forces use cannons to destroy the Viet fleet, killing as many as 10,000 of the defending forces.[89]
March 18 – Ming–Việt War: In Vietnam's Phung Hoa prefecture, the invading Chinese troops use a larger weapon, the da jiangjun chong cannon, to destroy more of the Viet ships.[89]
April 10 – After several invitations by the Yongle Emperor of China, the lama Deshin Shekpa, the fifth Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism, finally visits the Emperor at Nanjing, the Ming dynasty. In his 22-day visit, the Karmapa thrills the Ming court with alleged miracles that are recorded in a gigantic scroll, translated into five different languages. In a show of mystical prowess, Deshin Shekpa adds legitimacy to a questionable succession to the throne by Yongle, who had killed his nephew the Jianwen Emperor in the culmination of a civil war. For his services to the Ming court, including his handling of the ceremonial rites of Yongle's deceased parents, Deshin Shekpa is awarded the title Great Treasure Prince of Dharma (大寶法王).
May 4 – Ming–Việt War: A Vietnamese force of 70,000 troops attempts to stop the advance of the Chinese at the Hong River at the Ham Tu pass in what is now Vietnam's Hưng Yên province. With superior firepower, the Chinese kill over 10,000 Viet troops and capture hundreds of warships.[89]
May 30 – Ming–Việt War: In a last ditch effort to stop the Chinese invasion, the Vietnamese forces fight a final battle at Thanh Hóa, where the Emperor Hon Han Thuong had moved his capital. The Viet force loses 10,000 additional soldiers and the Vietnamese royal family flees during the retreat.[89]
October 5 – A group of high officials of the former Vietnamese government are put on trial before China's Yongle Emperor at Nanjing, and charged with treason for killing the previous Vietnamese ruler. Most of the prisoners are executed.[95]
October 20 – The English Parliament is opened at Gloucester after being summoned on August 26 by King Henry IV, and is marked by arguments between the House of Lords and the House of Commons over primacy and initiation of money bills.[96]
China's Yongle Emperor sends an order to Marquis Zhang Fu, who had recently conquered Vietnam and executed many of its officials, to avoid harming any innocent Vietnamese civilians.[98]
The English Parliament closes after having met for six weeks.
December – The Yongle Encyclopedia, until the 21st century the largest encyclopedia of history, is completed in China after four years of work by 2,169 scholars at the Hanlin Academy and the Imperial University.[99]
Date unknown
Rudolfo Belenzani leads a revolt against Bishop Georg von Liechtenstein in Trento, Bishopric of Trent.
May 18 – Western Schism: In response to the January 12 ultimatum by France, the antipope Benedict publishes a bull directing the excommunication of anyone, including King Charles VI, who attempted to withdraw obedience to the Avignon Papacy. The bull, "a major tactical mistake" by Benedict, gives the leaders of the University of Paris a pretext to declare those who had carried the bull to be guilty of high treason, and to accuse Benedict to be guilty of an attack on the royal dignity and national honor. King Charles then withdraws further support of Pope Benedict and proclaims the neutrality of France in the schism between Avignon and Rome.[100]
May 28 – A representative of Burma's Kingdom of Ava apologizes to the Ming dynasty Emperor of China for the kingdom's occupation of China's vassals, the Shan States, particularly the Mongyang State, whose monarch was killed in 1406.[104]
June 15 – After receiving the news that France will no longer support his Avignon Obedience, the Antipope Benedict XIII issues the Bull Celestis altitudo, summoning the a council to meet on November 1 at the French city of Perpignan, and then flees from the French-controlled Italian region of Genoa to avoid arrest.[105]
July–December
July 2 – From Livorno, a group of 13 Roman Catholic Cardinals allied with Pope Gregory begins sending encyclical letters "to the princes and prelates of the Christian world" summoning them to the Council of Pisa, to take place on March 25, 1409, in order to end the Western Schism.[106]
August 20 – Abdul Majid Hassan, the Sultan of Brunei, sets off on a voyage to China at the invitation of the Yongle Emperor[107] and arrives in the capital, Nanjing, by September, becoming the first foreign monarch to make a peaceful visit the Chinese Empire. While visiting, the Sultan becomes ill and dies on October 19.
January 18 – The Decree of Kutná Hora strengthens the Bohemian Nation at the cost of foreign, mostly German speaking students at the University of Prague. Over a thousand students leave Prague as a consequence, choosing instead the universities of Heidelberg and the new University of Leipzig established later in the year.
February 24 – Traveling in Valencia in Aragon, Father Joan Gilabert Jofré, known as "Padre Jofré", witnesses a mentally ill man being beaten by two young attackers. After rescuing the victim, Jofré resolves to create the Hospital dels Ignoscents, the world's first psychiatric hospital.[113]
May 10 – The Council of Pisa votes on the matter of whether to remove the warring popes Gregory XII and Benedict XIII. All but two of the clerics present vote for them to be deposed, with the exception of Cardinal Gui de Maillesec and Cardinal Niccolò Brancaccio, who ask for more time to consider.[116]
June 5 – The Council of Pisa issues the order deposing both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII are responsible for the Western Schism and that both should be deposed.[122]
June 26 – By order of the Council of Pisa, Pietro Filargo, is crowned as Pope Alexander V, producing the anomaly of three different popes of the Roman Catholic church.[123]
June 27 – Bohemia's King Wenceslaus pardons rebel leader Jan Zizka, and orders the city of Budejovice to do so as well.[115]
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^Ibn Khaldun (1952). Ibn Khaldūn and Tamerlane: Their Historic Meeting in Damascus, 1401 A.d. (803 A. H.) A Study Based on Arabic Manuscripts of Ibn Khaldūn's "Autobiography,". Translated by Walter Joseph Fischel. University of California Press. p. 97.
^"Timur, Sultan", in Biography or Third Division of The English Cyclopedia, Volume 6, ed. by Charles Knight (Bradbury, Evans & Company, 1868) p.77
^"Timur in Iran", by H. R. Roemer, in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6, ed. by Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart (Cambridge University Press, 1968) p.66
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^Rogers, Clifford J., ed. (2010). "Modon, Battle of". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN978-0-195334036.
^C. L. Kingsford, Prejudice and Promise in Fifteenth Century England (Taylor & Francis, 2013) p.84
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^Paul de Rapin-Thoyras, The History of England, Volume 5, (J. and P. Knapton, 1747) p.271
^Léon Guérin, Histoire maritime de France contenant (Paris: Dufour et Mulat, 1851) p. 341
^Dreyer, Edward L. (2007), Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433, New York: Pearson Longman, p. 105, ISBN978-0-321-08443-9, OCLC64592164
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^Blockmans, Wim; Prevenier, Walter (1999). Peters, Edward (ed.). The Promised Lands: The Low Countries Under Burgundian Rule, 1369-1530. Translated by Fackelman, Elizabeth. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 13.
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^Richard Vaughan, John the Fearless: The Growth of Burgundian Power, Volume 2 (Boydell Press, 2002) pp.7-8
^R. R. Davies, The Revolt of Owain Glyn Dwr (Oxford University Press, 1996)
^Muir, William (1896). The Mameluke; or, Slave dynasty of Egypt, 1260-1517, A. D. Smith, Elder. pp. 121−128.
^Mallett, Michael E. (1996). "La conquista della Terraferma". Storia di Venezia dalle origini alla caduta della Serenissima. Vol. IV, Il rinascimento: politica e cultura (in Italian). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana. p. 188. OCLC644711024.
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^Jan-Marie Knights, The Plantagenet Socialite (Amberley Publishing, 2023)
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^Friedrich Stolberg, "Gebhardshagen" in Befestigungsanlagen im und am Harz von der Frühgeschichte bis zur Neuzeit (Fortifications in and around the Harz from Early History to Modern Times) (Hildesheim, 1968) pp. 105–107
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^Lodge, Eleanor Constance (1924). The End of the Middle Age, 1273-1453. Methuen & Company Limited.
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^Syvret, Marguerite (2011). Balleine's History of Jersey. Chichester: Phillimore. pp. 50–51. ISBN978-1860776502.
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^ abcdSun, Laichen (2006), "Chinese Gunpowder Technology and Đại Việt, ca. 1390–1497", in Reid, Anthony; Tran, Nhung Tuyet (eds.), Viet Nam: Borderless Histories, University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 79–83, ISBN978-1-316-44504-4
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