1914年8月の第一次世界大戦の勃発時点では、多数の社会主義政党は当初は参戦への反対を主張していた[112]。しかし戦争が始まるとオーストリアやイギリス、フランス、ドイツ、ロシアなどの社会主義者は、台頭するナショナリストの流れに追随し、彼らの国家による参戦を支持した[113]。イタリアの左翼は戦争への立場をめぐって深刻な分裂となった[110]。イタリア社会党は社会主義の国際主義を背景に戦争に反対したが、多数のイタリアの革命的サンディカリストは社会主義の成功を確実にするためにドイツ帝国やオーストリア＝ハンガリー帝国の反動的な体制は打破される必要があるとの背景により、それらとの戦争を支持した[114]。エンリコ・コラディーニ（英語版）はナショナリストの視点からイタリアのための「労働者階級国家」と、反動的なドイツの打倒は、同様に必要と表明した[115]。参戦におけるこの分裂からファシズムの始まりが生まれ、イタリア社会党のアンジェロ・オリベッティ（英語版）は1914年10月に「国際行動のための革命的ファッシ」（伊: Fasci d'Azione rivoluzionaria internazionalista、英: the Revolutionary Fascio for International Action）を組織した[114]。同時期にムッソリーニは参戦主義者の理由に賛同することを決断した[116]。ファシストはナショナリズムを支持し、プロレタリアートの国際主義は間違いだと主張した[114]。
この時、ファシストは整合性を持った政策のセットを持たず、運動は非常に小さかった。大集会の開催を試みたが効果的ではなく、常に政府当局や正統な社会主義者から妨害を受けた[117]。ファシストを含めた参戦主義者と、反参戦主義の正統的な社会主義者の間の敵意は、暴力に転じた[118]。反参戦主義の革命的社会主義者による、ファシストや他の参戦主義者に対する反対や攻撃は、非常に暴力的であったため、戦争に反対していた民主社会主義者の Anna Kulliscioff でさえ、イタリア社会党は戦争支持者を沈黙させる運動をするには遠すぎる場所へ行ってしまった、と述べた[118]。
1917年にイタリアで開始された「アルディーティ (イタリア軍)（イタリア語版）」(Arditi)と呼ばれた命知らずのエリートの「突撃隊」は、ファシズムに重要な影響を与えた[119]。アルディーティは暴力の絶えない生活で特別に訓練された兵士で、独特な黒シャツの制服とフェズ帽を着ていた[119]。1918年11月にアルディーティは国家組織に組織されて Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia となり、1919年の半ばまでには2000人の若者が所属した[119]。ムッソリーニはアルディーティを気に入り、戦後にアルディーティをベースにしたファシスト突撃隊の「Squadristi」を組織し、黒シャツ隊と呼ばれるようになった[119]。
1919年にファシストは、ファシスト・マニフェストを作成した。このマニフェストは国家サンディカリストのアルチェステ・デ・アンブリス（英語版）と、未来派運動のマリネッティによって書かれ、1919年6月6日にファシストの新聞である Il Popolo d'Italia に掲載された[125]。このマニフェストは政治体制として、男性と女性の両方の参政権を持つ普通選挙や、地域をベースとした比例代表制の選挙制度や、コーポラティストの考えである労働者や工業、交通、公衆衛生、通信などの職業別の領域ごとに選挙されて彼らを代表する法的権限を持った職業人や商人から選出された専門家による「国家評議会」の制度の創設や、イタリア上院（貴族院）の廃止などを主張した[126]。また経済社会政策として、全労働者の8時間労働制限、最低賃金、産業管理における労働者代表、産業別や公共部門の労働組合の平等な信任、交通部門の再編、無効な保険に関する法案の修正、退職年齢の65歳から55歳への引き下げ、資本に対する強力な累進課税、宗教的施設の資産没収や主教の廃止、軍需契約の利益率の抑制などを主張した[127]。軍事政策として、防衛業務に従事する短期の国家的な民兵の創設、軍需産業の国営化、平和的だが競争的に設計された外交政策などを主張した[128]。
ムッソリーニはイタリアの首相に任命されると、ファシストはイタリア議会を支配していなかったため連立政権を形成する必要があった[144]。その連立政権は、内閣の首班はムッソリーニだが、他の13の大臣のうちファシストは僅か3名だけで、残りは陸軍や海軍の代表者や、2名のカトリック組織の構成員、2名の民主自由主義者、1名の保守自由主義者、1名の社会民主主義者、1名のナショナリスト、そして元ファシストの哲学者のジョヴァンニ・ジェンティーレであった[144]。ムッソリーニの連立政権は当初は、自由主義者の財務大臣のアルベルト・デ・ステファニ（イタリア語版）の指示のもとで経済的には自由主義の政策を追求し、公務員の大幅削減によって予算の均衡を図った[144]。初期には政府の政策の小さい劇的な変化が起こり、共産主義者に対する抑圧的な警察活動が行われ、ダンヌンツィオ主義者の反乱は限定的だった[144]。しかし同時期にムッソリーニは、彼がその議題を管理するファシスト大評議会で、ファシスト党のための政府高官を作ることによって、ファシスト党への彼の支配力を集約した[144]。更に「Squadristi」や黒シャツ隊と呼ばれる民兵は、常備軍の士官に指導される国営のMVSN(イタリア語: Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale)に改組された[144]。「Squadristi」は当初はムッソリーニの政府に非常に不満で、「ファシスト革命」を要求していた[144]。
イタリアのファシストの初期の他の賞賛者には、ハンガリー全国防衛連盟(ハンガリー語: Magyar Országos Véderő Egylet、MOVE)の指導者のゲンベシュ・ジュラがおり、彼は（ナチスよりも早く）1919年には自分自身を「国家社会主義者」(national socialist)と定義して資産の大幅な変革の必要性を語り、1923年には「ブダペスト進軍」の必要性を主張した[158]。スペインでは増加するストライキやアナキズムへの支持の高まりなどの政治的危機の中で、1923年に軍人であり侯爵であるミゲル・プリモ・デ・リベラがスペイン政府に対するクーデターに成功し、自分自身を保守的な軍事政権の指導者に据えて、既存の政党政治制度を無効とした[159]。リベラは権力獲得後、彼自身が労働者と上司（経営者）の間の和解の仲裁者となることによって経済的な危機を解決し、彼の統治はイタリアのファシストのモデルをベースとしたコーポラティストの経済体制を創立する、と考えた[160]。
ハンガリー王国のファシストゲンベシュ・ジュラは、勢力拡大して1932年に首相となり、ファシストのイタリアやナチス・ドイツを訪問してこの2つの体制と良好な関係を固めた。彼は彼の「国家統一党」(Party of National Unity)を、産業での一日8時間労働や週48時間労働、コーポラティストの経済の考え、ハンガリーの隣国への領土回復要求などの追求の拠点とすることを試みた[161]。第二次世界大戦末期にはナチズムに近い矢十字党が勢力を拡大し、ドイツへの協力を主張した。ルーマニア王国のファシスト運動鉄衛団は、1933年以降に政治的な支持を拡大し、1人の鉄衛団のメンバーが総理大臣のイオン・デュカ（英語版）を暗殺した[162]。大恐慌の期間中に、ギリシャやリトアニア、ポーランド、ユーゴスラビアなどで、ファシズムから要素を借りた各種のパラ・ファシスト（ファシスト類似）の政府が創立された[163]。
大恐慌の間、ムッソリーニは経済に対する積極的な国家の介入を推進した。彼は1914年に「超資本主義」を主張し始めたが、彼は現在の「超資本主義」を、退廃を主張して無限の消費者主義を支持して「人類の標準化」を作成するとの理由により誤りと糾弾した[164]。しかしまたムッソリーニは、初期の「英雄資本主義（英語版）」の経済発展は価値があり、生産的である限り私有財産を支持すると主張した[164]。大恐慌の当初にイタリアのファシストは経済への大規模な介入を行い、産業再建機構（イタリア語: Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale、IRI）や、破綻した民間会社に国家資金を供給する巨大な国営の会社や持ち株会社を創立した[165]。このIRIは1937年に恒久的な機関として創立され、国家的な閉鎖経済を作るというファシストの政策を追求し、軍需生産の最大化では私企業を超えた力を持った[165]。ナチス・ドイツでも同様に、ドイツの鉄鋼産業が高品質の輸入された鉄よりも低品質のドイツの鉄を使用する事を強制されたなど、閉鎖経済や再軍備や強制的な保護貿易政策などの手段により経済政策が追求された[166]。
有名なナショナリストの新聞「レグノ」(Regno)の記者で、イタリア・ナショナリスト協会(ANI)の設立者の1人でもあるエンリコ・コラディーニ（英語版）は[178]、ナショナリズムを社会進化論と結びつけ、「鉄の人種法」によって外国からの影響の除去、帝国主義の追求、労働者の国家への組み込み、ブルジョワジーの再生などを含み、他方では「女性的な人道主義」、自由主義、民主主義、社会主義などへの反対を含んだ[178]。コラディーニは「革命としての戦争」と「プロレタリアのナショナリズム」を提唱した[179]。コラディーニはイタリアにおける革命的社会主義を、その反愛国主義や、反軍国主義、国際主義、階級闘争の主張などのために反対したが、彼や他のナショナリストはその革命的で征服的な精神には感銘を受け、1910年の ANI の会合では以下のように「プロレタリアのナショナリズム」への支持を宣言した。
イギリスファシスト連合のオズワルド・モズレーは、ファシストのコーポラティズムを「それは人間の身体のような組織された国家を意味し、それぞれの器官はその個々の機能を遂行するが、全体として協調して動く」と述べた[211]。ファシストは小ブルジョアまたは小規模事業者には敵意がなく、彼らは労働者を含めた集団と、上流階級のブルジョアや巨大事業者やマルクス主義からの防衛を約束した。これらの集団の推進は、ファシズムを意味する「中道の過激主義」(extremism of the centre)という用語の源となった[212]。
著作「西洋の没落」で知られるオスヴァルト・シュペングラーの文化は誕生して成熟し年を重ねて、文明の最終形態に達した時には滅びるという文化の歴史的発展の法則理論もファシズムに影響を与えた[258]。シュペングラーは文明がある地点に達した時、「野蛮人」による危機によって新世代を作るまでは、文化はその創造的な能力を失って退廃に陥るとし、西洋を知性や経済やコスモポリタンな都会や無宗教の生活、原子化（最小化）された個人主義、生物学的および「精神的」な繁殖力の死、などの退廃への屈服と見た[258]。彼は、帝国的な力を持った「若い」ドイツ国家が古代ローマの遺産を継承して「血統」と本能の価値の復活を導き、他方では合理主義の理念は馬鹿げていると信じた[258]。「Der Mensch und die Technik」や「Preussentum und Sozialismus」や「Year of Decision」などのシュペングラーの他の著作はファシスト達に高く評価された[258]。シュペングラーの理念は、ムッソリーニやベネデット・クローチェやアルフレート・ローゼンベルクらによって賞賛された[259]。しかしファシストはシュペングラーの著作を尊敬した一方で、典型的には彼の宿命論や悲観主義は拒絶した[259]。シュペングラーの確固とした反マルクス主義の視点」はムッソリーニに深く印象を与えた[259]。
ハンガリーの共産主義者の Djula Sas は1923年の評論で、イタリアのファシストは労働者階級の組織を解体し、特定の地域では賃金を大幅減少させ、相続や戦争の利益への税を廃止して、「国家的生産」の必要性を強調した、と記した[427]。Sas によれば、これらの行動はファシズムは産業資本主義の奉仕であったことを明白に示した[432]。
^Renton, David. Fascism: Theory and Practice, p. 21, London: Pluto Press, 1999.
^Girvin, Brianの「The Right in the Twentieth Century」（Pinter、1994年）P83ではファシズムを「反自由主義の急進主義的な権威主義のナショナリストの運動」(anti-liberal radical authoritarian nationalist movement)。
^Turner, Henry Ashbyの「Reappraisals of Fascism、（New Viewpoints、1975年） P162では以下と記した「（ファシズムの）急進的で権威主義的なナショナリズムの目標」(goals of radical and authoritarian nationalism)
^Payne, Stanleyは「en:University of Wisconsin Press」（1992年、P43）で、1923年から1977年のスペインのファシズムにおけるスペインのファシストen:José Antonio Primo de Riveraの目標を以下のように記した「若いJosé Antonioの主要な政治的情熱は、彼の父の著作の正しさの証明を長く保持したもので、彼は今、急進的で権威主義的なナショナリストの体制の概念化を試みた。(Young José Antonio's primary political passion was and would long remain the vindication of his father's work, which he was now trying to conceptualize in a radical, authoritarian nationalist form)
^Larsen, Stein Ugelvikや Hagtvet, Berntや Myklebust, Jan Petterは「Who were the Fascists: social roots of European Fascism」(p.424)で、ファシズムの参照用定義(reference calls)を「統合された急進的なナショナリストの権威主義の、組織的な体制」(organized form of integrative radical nationalist authoritarianism)と記した
^Sternhell, Zeev; Sznajder, Mario; Ashéri, Maia; Massel, David (translation). The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press: 1994. pp. 189–190.
^Payne, Stanley G. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Oxon: The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, 2005 (digital edition). p. 112.
^ abGriffin, Roger: "The Palingenetic Core of Fascism", Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Rome, 2003 AH.Brookes.ac.ukArchived 2011年11月20日, at the Wayback Machine.
^ abEatwell, Roger: "A 'Spectral-Syncretic Approach to Fascism', The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003 pp 71–80 Books.google.com
^ abLipset, Seymour: "Fascism as Extremism of the Middle Class", The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003, pp. 112–116
^"We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right', a Fascist century." ... "We are free to believe that this is the 'collective' century, and thus the century of the state. It is eminently reasonable for a new doctrine to make use of still-vital elements from other doctrines," ... "Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people." (p. 14) "The Fascist negation of socialism, democracy, liberalism, should not, however, be interpreted as implying a desire to drive the world backwards to positions occupied prior to 1789, a year commonly referred to as that which opened the demo-liberal century. History does not travel backwards. The Fascist doctrine has not taken De Maistre as its prophet. Monarchical absolutism is of the past, and so is ecclesiolatry. Dead and done for are feudal privileges and the division of society into closed, uncommunicating castes. Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State." ... "Fascism is therefore opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State (which amalgamates classes into a single economic and ethical reality) is unknown, and which sees in history nothing but the class struggle. Fascism is likewise opposed to trade unionism as a class weapon. But when brought within the orbit of the State, Fascism recognises the real needs which gave rise to socialism and trade-unionism, giving them due weight in the guild or corporative system in which divergent interests are coordinated and harmonised in the unity of the State." (p.15) "In rejecting democracy Fascism rejects the absurd conventional lie of political equalitarianism, the habit of collective irresponsibility, the myth of felicity and indefinite progress." ... "Fascism denies that numbers, as such, can be the determining factor in human society; it denies the right of numbers to govern by means of periodical consultations; it asserts the irremediable and fertile and beneficent inequality of men who cannot be leveled by any such mechanical and extrinsic device as universal suffrage." Doctrine of Fascism.
^E.G. Noel O'Sullivan's five major themes of fascism are: corporatism, revolution, the leader principle, messianic faith, and autarky)
^Wiarda, Howard J.「Corporatism and comparative politics」（M.E. Sharpe、1996年） p12
^ abGrčić, Joseph. Ethics and political theory. Lanham, Maryland, USA: University of America, Inc, 2000. p. 120
^Mussolini, Benito. 1935. Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers. p 14. "The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people."
^Griffen, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" – by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 72."Nazi political theorist Carl Schmitt described the Nazi intention to form a "strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity" in order to avoid a "disasterous pluralism tearing the German people apart."
^De Grand, Alexander. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: the "fascist" style of rule. Routledge, 2004. p. 28.
^ ab"Pax Romanizing". TIME Magazine, 31 December 1934. The Fascist International declared their opposition to the seeking of autonomy and cultural distinction of Jewish groups in Europe, claiming that such attempts were dangerous and an affront to national unity.
^Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Nasri, William Z. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 62 – Supplement 25 – Automated Discourse Generation to the User-Centered Revolution: 1970–1995. CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 9780824720629. p. 69.
^Griffin, Roger (ed.); Feldman, Matthew (ed.). Fascism: Fascism and culture. London, UK; New York, USA: Routledge, 2004. p. 185.
^Frank Bealey, Allan G. Johnson. The Blackwell dictionary of political science: a user's guide to its terms. 2nd edition. Malden, Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell Publishers, 2000. p. 129.
^Walter Laqueur, Walter. Fascism: A Readers' Guide : Analysis, Interpretations, Bibliography. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA: University of California Press, 1976 (first edition, 1978 (paperback edition). p. 338.
^Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism. New York, New York, USA: St. Martins Press, 1991. pp. 222–223.
^Gregor, Anthony James. Mussolini's intellectuals: fascist social and political thought. Princeton University Press, 2004. p. 172.
^ abcRoland Sarti. "Italian fascism: radical politics and conservative goals". Fascists and Conservatives. Ed. Martin Blinkhorn. 2nd edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2001 p. 21.
^Eatwell, Roger: "A Spectral-Syncretic Approach to Fascism", The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003, p 79. Books.Google.com
^Turner, Stephen P., Käsler, Dirk: Sociology Responds to Fascism, Routledge. 2004, p. 222
^Eatwell, Roger: "A Spectral-Syncretic Approach to Fascism(ファシズムへのスペクトル - シンクレティック・アプローチ)", The Fascism Reader, Routledge, 2003, pp 79–80
^Books.Google.com Key concepts in politics, Andrew Heywood, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. p28. ISBN 978-0-312-23381-5 "various horseshoe shaped and two dimensional spectrums have been developed to offer a more complete picture of ideological positions"
^Mussolini, Benito; Schnapp, Jeffery Thompson (ed.); Sears, Olivia E. (ed.); Stampino, Maria G. (ed.). "Address to the National Corporative Council (14 November 1933) and Senate Speech on the Bill Establishing the Corporations (abridged; 13 January 1934)". A Primer of Italian Fascism. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. pp. 158–159.
^Books.Google.com "a final indicator of the amibiguity between left and right extremes is that many militants switch sides, including the very founder of fascism, Benito Mussolini" Terrorism today, Christopher C. Harmon, Routledge, 2000. ISBN 978-0-7146-4998-6
^Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 58.
^John Toland (1976), Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography, p. 306
^Weber, Eugen. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, [1964] 1982. p. 8.
^Renton, David. Fascism: Theory and Practice, London: Pluto Press, 1999.
^Jenkins, Brian (ed). France in the Era of Fascis’, Oxford: Beghahan Books, 2005, p 66.
^Stackleberg, Roderick: Hitler's Germany, London: Routeledge, 1999, p 17
^Stanley G. Payne, Fascism: Comparison and Definition. University of Wisconsin Press, 1983, p. 3.
^Roger Griffin, Interregnum or Endgame?: Radical Right Thought in the ‘Post-fascist’ Era, The Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 5, no. 2, July 2000, pp. 163–78
^‘Non Angeli, sed Angli: the neo-populist foreign policy of the "New" BNP', in Christina Liang (ed.) Europe for the Europeans: the foreign and security policy of the populist radical right (Ashgate, Hampshire, 2007) ISBN 0754648516
^Laqueur, Walter. ‘’Fascism Past, Present and Future’’, Oxford, OUP, 1997
^Stanley G. Payne, Fascism: Comparison and Definition. University of Wisconsin Press. 1983. ISBN 9780299080648. p. 8 an 104
^ abTalmon, Jacob Leib. The Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Transaction Publishers, 1991. pp. 451–452.
^ abcdPayne, Stanley. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. UCL Press Ltd, 1995 (original); Digital Printing, 2005. p. 28
^Miliukov, Paul (1920). Bolshevism: An International Danger. London, George Allen & Unwin, pp. 24-25.
^Versluis, Arthur.The New Inquistions. Oxford University Press, 2006.
^ abcdZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 161.
^ abcZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 162.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 160.
^ abZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 163.
^ abcMartin Blinkhorn. Mussolini and fascist Italy. Second edition. New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2003 p. 9.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 32.
^Emilio Gentile. The struggle for modernity: nationalism, futurism, and fascism. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Praeger Publishers, 2003. p. 5.
^Emilio Gentile. The struggle for modernity: nationalism, futurism, and fascism. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Praeger Publishers, 2003. p. 6.
^ abZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 170.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 173.
^Spencer Tucker. Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 1001.
^Spencer Tucker. Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 884.
^ abcZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 175.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. pp. 173, 175.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 214.
^Anthony James Gregor. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 195–196.
^ abAnthony James Gregor. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 196.
^ abcdRoger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: Fascism and culture. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2004. p. 207.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 178.
^Stanislao G. Pugliese. Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present. Oxford, England, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004. 43–44.
^Pugliese, Stanislao G. Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2004. p. 25-27.
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^Pugliese, Stanislao G. Fascism, anti-fascism, and the resistance in Italy: 1919 to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2004. p. 25
^Dahlia S. Elazar. The making of fascism: class, state, and counter-revolution, Italy 1919–1922. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Praeger Publishers, 2001. p. 73
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 69.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. pp. 69–70.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 70.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 186.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 187.
^ abcZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 189.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 73.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 75.
^ abZeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 193.
^ abcDe Grand, Alexander. Italian fascism: its origins and development. 3rd ed. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. p. 145.
^Fascists and conservatives: the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe. Routdlege, 1990. p. 14.
^Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder, Maia Ashéri. The birth of fascist ideology: from cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. p. 190.
^Martin Blinkhorn. Fascists and Conservatives. 2nd edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2001 p. 22.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 72.
^Cristogianni Borsella, Adolph Caso. Fascist Italy: A Concise Historical Narrative. Wellesley, Massachusetts, USA: Branden Books, 2007. p. 76.
^ abcdefgRobert O. Paxton. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York, New York, USA; Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Random House, Inc., 2005 p. 87.
^ abRobert O. Paxton. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York, New York, USA; Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Random House, Inc., 2005 p. 88.
^ abRobert O. Paxton. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York, New York, USA; Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Random House, Inc., 2005 p. 90.
^ abcdefgStanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 110.
^De Grand, Alexander. Italian fascism: its origins and development. 3rd ed. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. pp. 45 and 54.
^De Grand, Alexander. Italian fascism: its origins and development. 3rd ed. University of Nebraska Press, 2000. p. 45.
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^ abcdStanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 113.
^ abStanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 114.
^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 115.
^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. pp. 119–120.
^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 122.
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^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing Edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 132
^Dylan J. Riley. The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe: Italy, Spain, and Romania, 1870–1945. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010. p. 87
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^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 270.
^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. pp. 282–288.
^Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England, UK: Routledge, 2005. p. 145.
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^"Goebbels on National-Socialism, Bolshevism and Democracy, Documents on International Affairs, vol. II, 1938, pp. 17–19. Accessed from the Jewish Virtual Library on February 5, 2009. JewishVirtualLibrary.org Joseph Goebbels describes the Nazis as being allied with countries which had "authoritarian nationalist" ideology and conception of the state.
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^Griffen, Roger (editor). Chapter 8: "Extremism of the Centre" – by Seymour Martin Lipset. International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus. Arnold Readers. p. 101.
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^De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, pp. 48–51.
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^Pollard, John Francis, The Fascist Experience in Italy, p. 80 Routledge 1998
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^Benito Mussolini, Richard Washburn Child, Max Ascoli, Richard Lamb. My rise and fall. Da Capo Press, 1998. pp. 2, 38.
^Aaron Gillette. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA. p. 43.
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^Marcuse, Herbet. Reason and revolution: Hegel and the rise of social theory, Volume 1954. 7th ed. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited, 1977. 402–403.
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^Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 242.
^Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 242-243.
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^Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 250.
^Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 2002. p. 237.
^Gregor, Anthony James. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 29
^Haugen, Brenda. Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Minneapolis, Minnesota, US: Compass Point Books, 2007. Pp. 17.
^ abGregor, Anthony James. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, USA; London, England, UK: University of California Press, 1979. p. 31.
^ abcdCyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006. p. 628.
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^ abAaron Gillette. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA. p. 41.
^ファシストの持つ反民主主義、反共主義、軍国主義などの特徴をある程度は持っているが、ファシストの持つ新国家創造の革命的な目標に欠ける。Peter Davies, Derek Lynchは著書「The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right」でこのような本当のファシストの国家や運動とは異なる側面を持った権威主義的な統治を「パラ・ファシズム」と呼んだ。
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^Fortescue, William. The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: conflicts and continuities. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2000. p. 181.
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^Paul H. Lewis (2000). Latin Fascist Elites. Praeger/Greenwood. p. 9. ISBN0-275-97880-X
^Karl Dietrich Bracher (1976). Fascism: A Reader's Guide. Harmondsworth. pp. 217-218. ISBN0520030338
「It might well be claimed that Nazism and Italian fascism were separate species within the same genus, without any implicit assumption that the two species ought to be well-nigh identical. Ernst Nolte has stated that the differences could be easily reconciled by employing a term such as 'radical fascism' for Nazism. ... The establishment of fundamental generic characteristics linking Nazism to movements in other parts of Europe allows further consideration on a comparative basis of the reasons why such movements were able to become a real political danger and gain power in Italy and Germany, whereas in other European countries they remained an unpleasant, but transitory irritant…」
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伊藤, 敦「医療保険におけるフリーアクセスをめぐる論理、倫理問題、合意状況」『実践政策学：Policy and Practice Studies』第4巻第1号、実践政策学エディトリアルボード、2018年6月、125-137頁、NAID40021649542。「政府が個人の健康問題に過度に干渉し、患者の受療行動を統制する行為は結束主義的な傾向を強める」
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Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250
Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
Gentile, Emilio. 2005. The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918–1925: The First Complete Study of the Origins of Italian Fascism, New York: Enigma Books, ISBN 978-1-929631-18-6
Alexander J. De Grand Routledge, 2004. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: the 'fascist' style of rule
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