The Trucial States (Arabic: الإمارات المتصالحة, romanized: Al-Imārāt al-Mutaṣāliḥa), also known as the Trucial Coast (Arabic: الساحل المتصالح, romanized: Al-Sāḥil al-Mutaṣāliḥ), the Trucial Sheikhdoms (Arabic: المشيخات المتصالحة, romanized: Al-Mashyakhāt al-Mutaṣāliḥa), Trucial Arabia or Trucial Oman, was a group of tribal confederations to the south of the Persian Gulf (southeastern Arabia) whose leaders had signed protective treaties, or truces, with the United Kingdom between 1820 and 1892.[3]
The sheikhdoms permanently allied themselves with the United Kingdom through a series of treaties, beginning with the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 and including the Perpetual Maritime Truce of 1853, until in 1892 they entered into "Exclusivity Agreements" with the British—following on from Bahrain in 1880—which put them under British protection.[4] This was an unclear status which fell short of a formal protectorate, but required Britain to defend them from external aggression in exchange for exclusive British rights in the states.[5]
Two sheikhdoms at various times looked as if they might be granted trucial status, affirming their independence from neighbouring Sharjah, Al Hamriyah and Al Heera, but neither signed treaties with the British. Kalba, granted trucial status in 1936 because it was chosen as the site of a back-up landing strip for the Imperial Airways flights into Sharjah, was re-incorporated into Sharjah in 1951 on the death of its ruler.[6]
The last sheikhdom to be granted recognition was that of Fujairah, which became a trucial state in 1952 after the British Government came under pressure from PCL (Petroleum Concessions Limited) to grant status in order that the company could have a free hand to explore for oil along the whole east coast.[6]
The southeastern Persian Gulf coast was called the "Pirate Coast" by the British, who argued that raiders based there—particularly the 'Qawasim' or 'Joasmees', now known as the Al Qasimi (the ruling families of Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah)—harassed British-flagged shipping.[7][8]
The first in a long series of maritime skirmishes between the Al Qasimi and British vessels took place in 1797, when the British-flagged snowBassein was seized and released two days later. The cruiser Viper was subsequently attacked off Bushire.[9] The Al Qasimi leader, Saqr bin Rashid Al Qasimi, protested innocence in both cases.[7][8]
A period of great instability followed along the coast, with a number of actions between British and Al Qasimi vessels alongside various changes of leadership and allegiances between the rulers of Ras Al Khaimah, Ajman and Sharjah with Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi claiming sovereignty over 'all the Joasmee ports' in 1823, a claim recognised by the British at the time.[9]
British expeditions to protect British Indian trade and interests around Ras al-Khaimah, close to the Strait of Hormuz, led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1809, and again (with far greater destructive force) in 1819. The next year, 1820, a peace treaty was signed to which all the sheikhs of the coast adhered. The signatories to that treaty included Sultan bin Saqr Al Qasimi of Sharjah (on 6 January 1820). He signed a 'preliminary agreement' also on behalf of Ajman and Umm Al Qawain, and then on 8 January at Ras Al Khaimah, Hassan Bin Rahma Al Qasimi signed as "Sheikh of 'Hatt and Falna' formerly of Ras Al Khaimah" ('Hatt' being the modern day village of Khatt and 'Falna' being the modern day suburb of Ras Al Khaimah, Fahlain, near the location of Al Falayah Fort), followed on 10 January 1820 by Qadib bin Ahmad of Jazirah Al Hamrah (given in the treaty's English translation as 'Jourat Al Kamra') signed.[10]
On 11 January 1820, again at Ras Al Khaimah, Shakhbut bin Diyab Al Nahyan signed on behalf of his son, Tahnoon, the Sheikh of the Bani Yas and ruler of Abu Dhabi. Husain bin Ali of Rams signed on 15 January 1820. The uncle of Muhammad bin Hazza of Dubai signed on 28 January 1820 in Sharjah. The rulers of Ajman and Umm Al Quwain acceded to the full treaty on 15 March 1820, signing on board the ship of the commander of the British expeditionary force, Major-General William Keir Grant. The treaty was also signed, at Sharjah, by the emir of Bahrain.[11]
The Sheikh of Rams lost the support of his people soon after and both he and the Sheikh of Jazirah Al Hamrah were deposed and their communities became subject to the rule of Ras Al Khaimah.[11] However, the Al-Zaabi family continued to rule Jazirah Al Hamrah as vassals until 1970.
As a peace treaty, it was not a conspicuous success. Skirmishes and conflicts, considered raids by the British, continued intermittently until 1835, when the sheikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea and Sharjah, Dubai, Ajman and Abu Dhabi signed a renewed treaty banning hostilities during the pearling season and a number of other short treaties were made, culminating with the ten-year truce of June 1843. Feeling the benefit of peaceful pearling and trade, the coastal Sheikhs signed the Perpetual Treaty of Maritime Peace in 1853, a process overseen by the British political agent at Bushire, Captain A. B. Kemball.[12]
Separate treaties in 1847 and 1856 saw treaties undertaking the abolition of slave trading and, in 1873, a further treaty abolishing slaving was signed by Sharjah and Abu Dhabi.[13]
1892 Exclusive Agreement
Primarily in reaction to the ambitions of France and Russia, Britain and the Trucial Sheikhdoms established closer bonds in an 1892 treaty, similar to treaties entered into by the UK with other Persian Gulf principalities.[14]
The sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to Britain and not to enter into relationships with any other foreign government without Britain's consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack.[15] This treaty, the "Exclusive Agreement", was signed by the Rulers of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah and Umm Al Quwain between 6 and 8 March 1892.[16] It was subsequently ratified by the Viceroy of India and the British Government in London.
In the 1920s, the British Government's desire to create an alternative air route from Great Britain to India gave rise to discussions with the rulers of the Trucial States about landing areas, anchorages and fuel depots along the coast. The first aeroplanes to appear were Royal Air Force (RAF) flying boats, used by RAF personnel to survey the area, and by political officers to visit the rulers. Air agreements were initially resisted by the rulers, who suspected interference with their sovereignty, however they also provided a useful source of revenue. In 1932, the demise of the air route through Persia (today's Iran) led to the opening of an airfield at Sharjah. In 1937, Imperial Airways flying boats began to call in at Dubai, and continued to do so for the next ten years.[17][18]
Trucial States Council
The Trucial States Council was a forum for the leaders of the emirates to meet, presided over by the British Political Agent. The first meetings took place in 1952, one in spring and one in autumn, and this set a pattern for meetings in future years.[19] The council was purely consultative and had no written constitution and no policy making powers, it provided more than anything a forum for the rulers to exchange views and agree on common approaches. The British managed to provoke considerable irritation amongst the rulers, especially Sharjah and Ras Al Khaimah, when the ruler of Fujairah, recognised as a Trucial State by Britain on 21 March 1952, attended his first Trucial States Council.[20]
By 1958, committees were set up to advise on public health, agriculture and education, but the council had no funding until 1965, when the chairmanship moved from the Political Agent to one of the rulers, the first chairman being Shaikh Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi of Ras Al Khaimah.[21] One issue which came up regularly in the council's first 14 meetings was that of locusts—the swarms were highly destructive to the agriculture of the whole area—but the Bedouin of the interior were convinced the spraying of insecticide would be detrimental to their herds and resisted the teams brought in from Pakistan to spray the insects' breeding grounds.[22]
In 1965 the council was given a grant by the British to administer as it saw fit, instead of merely advising on British-prepared budgets. A full-time secretariat was also recruited.[21]
End
Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "east of Suez", signalled the end of Britain taking care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Persian Gulf.[23]
The decision pitched the rulers of the Trucial Coast, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind.[24]
The principle of union was first agreed between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968 meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates.[25] The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed—often stormy—as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where British intervention resulted in a walk-out by Qatar and Ras Al Khaimah.[26] Bahrain and Qatar were to drop out of talks, leaving only six emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971.
On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, officially joined the UAE on 10 February 1972. This change was due to the Iranian seizure of the islands Greater and Lesser Tunbs from Ras Al Khaimah and Abu Musa which was claimed by the emirate of Sharjah. The Iranian occupation of the three islands occurred on 30 November 1971 following the British withdrawal.[27]
^Balfour-Paul, G., The End of Empire in the Middle East: Britain's Relinquishment of Power in her Last Three Arab Dependencies, Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN978-0-521-46636-3
^ abBey, Frauke (1996). From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates. UK: Longman. pp. 296–297. ISBN978-0-582-27728-1.
^Alhammadi, Muna M. Britain and the administration of the Trucial States 1947-1965. Markaz al-Imārāt lil-Dirāsāt wa-al-Buḥūth al-Istirātījīyah. Abu Dhabi. p. 95. ISBN978-9948-14-638-4. OCLC884280680.
^Alhammadi, Muna M. Britain and the administration of the Trucial States 1947-1965. Markaz al-Imārāt lil-Dirāsāt wa-al-Buḥūth al-Istirātījīyah. Abu Dhabi. p. 96. ISBN978-9948-14-638-4. OCLC884280680.
Barnwell, Kristi N. "Overthrowing the Shaykhs: The Trucial States at the Intersection of Anti-Imperialism, Arab Nationalism, and Politics, 1952-1966". Arab Studies Journal 24.2 (2016): 72-95 online
Joyce, Miriam. "On the road towards unity: the Trucial states from a British perspective, 1960–66". Middle Eastern Studies 35.2 (1999): 45-60
Smith, Simon C. Britain's revival and fall in the Gulf: Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, 1950-71. (Routledge, 2004)
Zahlan, Rosemarie Said. The origins of the United Arab Emirates: A political and social history of the Trucial States (Routledge, 2016)
External links
Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to British Library archive materials relating to Persian Gulf history and Arabic science
24. Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty.
1912 novel by Willa Cather For the site of fighting in the American Civil War, see Battle of Chickamauga. Alexander's Bridge First editionAuthorWilla CatherCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishPublisherHoughton MifflinPublication date1912Media typePrint (hardback & paperback) Alexander's Bridge is the first novel by American author Willa Cather. First published in 1912, it was re-released with an author's preface in 1922. It also ran as a serial in McClure's, giving Cather some free time …
Part of the remains of the barracks of the Whelk Point Fort The Whelk Point Fort was a colonial fort erected on the southeast part of Tortola in the British Virgin Islands. The fort fell into disrepair and ruin, and relatively little of the original structure remains. In 1992 a house was built over the original foundations of the fort, but the remains of the barracks can still be seen on the land behind the house. The ruins are on private property and are not generally accessible to the public. …
أوديبولت الإحداثيات 42°18′37″N 95°15′05″W / 42.310277777778°N 95.251388888889°W / 42.310277777778; -95.251388888889 [1] تقسيم إداري البلد الولايات المتحدة[2] التقسيم الأعلى مقاطعة ساكآيوا خصائص جغرافية المساحة 2.713561 كيلومتر مربع2.712732 كيلومتر مربع (1 أبريل 2010) ارتفاع 415…
伊斯兰合作组织Organisation of Islamic Cooperation(英語)Organisation de la Coopération Islamique(法語)منظمة التعاون الإسلامي(阿拉伯語) 旗帜格言:To safeguard the interests and ensure the progress and well-being of Muslims 成员国 观察国 暂停会籍行政总部 沙地阿拉伯吉达 官方语言阿拉伯语英语法语类型宗教成员国57个在籍成员国(英语:Member states of the Organisation of …
Animation World NetworkURLawn.comTipeBerita, animasiBersifat komersial?NoPendaftaranTidak TersediaPemilikRon Diamond dan Dan SartoPembuatRon Diamond dan Dan SartoBerdiri sejakOctober 3, 1996Peringkat Alexa60.544 (1r Desember 2017) Animation World Network (bahasa Indonesia: Jaringan Dunia Animasi; sering hanya AWN) adalah sebuah grup penerbitan daring[1] yang berspesialisasi dalam sumber daya untuk pembuat animasi, dengan sebuah situs web ekstensif yang menawarkan berita, artikel, dan tau…
جزء من سلسلة حول تاريخ السعودية عصور ما قبل التاريخ تاريخ شبه الجزيرة العربية الممالك العربية قبل الإسلام مملكة قيدار الأنباط مملكة لحيان مملكة كندة مملكة هجر ثمود قصة أصحاب الأخدود العرب قبل الإسلام محمد في المدينة الخلافة الراشدة تاريخ السعودية الحديث شرافة مكة الدولة ا…
Australian independent record label Not to be confused with Due Process. Dew ProcessFounded2002 (21 years ago)FounderPaul PiticcoDistributor(s)Universal Music AustraliaGenreAlternative rockelectronicaindie rockpunk rockCountry of originAustraliaLocationFortitude Valley, QueenslandOfficial websitewww.dew-process.com Dew Process is an Australian independent record label, based in Brisbane, Queensland, founded and owned by Australian music industry figure Paul Piticco.[1] Operational The la…
Lihat pula: Terminal Kesamben Stasiun Kesamben P31 Tampak luar Stasiun Kesamben, 2020LokasiJalan Stasiun KesambenKesamben, Kesamben, Blitar, Jawa Timur 66191IndonesiaKoordinat8°8′57″S 112°21′50″E / 8.14917°S 112.36389°E / -8.14917; 112.36389Koordinat: 8°8′57″S 112°21′50″E / 8.14917°S 112.36389°E / -8.14917; 112.36389Ketinggian+193 mOperator Kereta Api IndonesiaDaerah Operasi VIII Surabaya KAI Commuter Letakkm 94+353 lintas B…
Village and community in Gwynedd, Wales Human settlement in WalesAberdyfiAberdoveyAberdyfi viewed from across the estuaryAberdyfiAberdoveyLocation within GwyneddPopulation1,282 (2011)[1]OS grid referenceSN615965CommunityAberdyfiPrincipal areaGwyneddPreserved countyGwyneddCountryWalesSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townABERDYFI / ABERDOVEYPostcode districtLL35Dialling code01654PoliceNorth WalesFireNorth WalesAmbulanceWelsh UK ParliamentDwyfor…
US surface-to-air missile See also: Standard Missile SM-6 redirects here. For other uses, see SM6 (disambiguation). RIM-174 ERAM Standard SM-6 USS John Paul Jones launches a RIM-174 in June 2014TypeSurface-to-air missile (Primary role) Anti-ballistic missile (Terminal phase) Anti-ship missile (Secondary role)Place of originUnited StatesService historyIn service2013–presentUsed byUnited States NavyRoyal Australian Navy[1]Japan Maritime Self Defense Force[2…
Sporting event delegationFiji at the2008 Summer OlympicsIOC codeFIJNOCFiji Association of Sports and National Olympic CommitteeWebsitewww.fasanoc.org.fjin BeijingCompetitors6 in 5 sportsFlag bearers Makelesi Bulikiobo (opening)Carl Probert (closing)Medals Gold 0 Silver 0 Bronze 0 Total 0 Summer Olympics appearances (overview)195619601964196819721976198019841988199219962000200420082012201620202024 Fiji sent a team to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. The country's flagbe…
American LGBT rights activist Rea CareyCarey speaking at the 2013 Decision Day Marriage Equality rally in Freedom PlazaBorn (1966-12-22) December 22, 1966 (age 57)Alma materSmith College (1980s) Harvard UniversityTitleExecutive directorPredecessorMatt ForemanMovementLGBT rights movementSpouseMargaret ConwayChildren1 Rea Carey (born December 22, 1966) is an American lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights activist and served as the executive director of the National LGBTQ T…
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع مشعل العنزي (توضيح). هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (أبريل 2017) مشعل العنزي معلومات شخصية الاسم الكامل مشعل حسين العنزي الميلاد 20 فبراير 1979 (العمر 45 سنة)، قطر الطول 1.79 م (5 قد…