Psychology of music

Part of a series on
Psychology
Basic psychology
Applied psychology
Concepts
Lists

The psychology of music, or music psychology, may be regarded as a branch of psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and/or musicology. It aims to explain and understand musical behaviour and experience, including the processes through which music is perceived, created, responded to, and incorporated into everyday life.[1][2] Modern psychology of music is primarily empirical; its knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants. The field has practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human attitude, skill, performance, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior.

The psychology of music can shed light on non-psychological aspects of musicology and musical practice. For example, it contributes to music theory through investigations of the perception and computational modelling of musical structures such as melody, harmony, tonality, rhythm, meter, and form. Research in music history can benefit from systematic study of the history of musical syntax, or from psychological analyses of composers and compositions in relation to perceptual, affective, and social responses to their music.

History

Early history (pre-1850)

The study of sound and musical phenomena prior to the 19th century was focused primarily on the mathematical modelling of pitch and tone.[3] The earliest recorded experiments date from the 6th century BCE, most notably in the work of Pythagoras and his establishment of the simple string length ratios that formed the consonances of the octave. This view that sound and music could be understood from a purely physical standpoint was echoed by such theorists as Anaxagoras and Boethius. An important early dissenter was Aristoxenus, who foreshadowed the modern psychology of music in his view that music could only be understood through human perception and its relation to human memory. Despite his views, the majority of musical education through the Middle Ages and Renaissance remained rooted in the Pythagorean tradition, particularly through the quadrivium of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and music.[3]

Research by Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo) demonstrated that, when string length was held constant, varying its tension, thickness, or composition could alter perceived pitch. From this, he argued that simple ratios were not enough to account for musical phenomenon and that a perceptual approach was necessary. He also claimed that the differences between various tuning systems were not perceivable, thus the disputes were unnecessary. Study of topics including vibration, consonance, the harmonic series, and resonance were furthered through the scientific revolution, including work by Galileo, Kepler, Mersenne, and Descartes. This included further speculation concerning the nature of the sense organs and higher-order processes, particularly by Savart, Helmholtz, and Koenig.[3]

Rise of empirical study (1860–1960)

A brass, spherical Helmholtz resonator based on his original design, circa 1890–1900

The latter 19th century saw the development of the psychology of music alongside the emergence of a general empirical psychology, one which passed through similar stages of development. The first was structuralist psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt, which sought to break down experience into its smallest definable parts. This expanded upon previous centuries of acoustic study, and included Helmholtz developing the resonator to isolate and understand pure and complex tones and their perception, the philosopher Carl Stumpf using church organs and his own musical experience to explore timbre and absolute pitch, and Wundt himself associating the experience of rhythm with kinesthetic tension and relaxation.[3]

As structuralism gave way to Gestalt psychology and behaviorism at the turn of the century, the psychology of music moved beyond the study of isolated tones and elements to the perception of their inter-relationships and human reactions to them, though work languished behind that of visual perception.[3] In Europe Géza Révész and Albert Wellek developed a more complex understanding of musical pitch, and in the US the focus shifted to that of music education and the training and development of musical skill. Carl Seashore led this work, producing his The Measurement of Musical Talents and The Psychology of Musical Talent. Seashore used bespoke equipment and standardized tests to measure how performance deviated from indicated markings and how musical aptitude differed between students.

In 1963 F. Chrysler was the first one to use the term "science of music" when he was working on his "year book for musical knowledge". European musicology was found in Greek. They were focused on the philosophy, and the concepts of any relations with music. Greek's several theories rose later to Arab and the Christians theories. Although their theories survived, they were also corrupted along the way, in the Middle Ages of Europe.[4]

Modern (1960–present)

The psychology of music in the second half of the 20th century has expanded to cover a wide array of theoretical and applied areas. From the 1960s the field grew along with cognitive science, including such research areas as music perception (particularly of pitch, rhythm, harmony, and melody), musical development and aptitude, music performance, and affective responses to music.[3]

This period has also seen the founding of journals, societies, conferences, research groups, centers, and degrees that each are specific to the psychology of music. This trend has brought research toward specific applications for music education, performance, and therapy.[5] While the techniques of cognitive psychology allowed for more objective examinations of musical behavior and experience, the theoretical and technological advancements of neuroscience have greatly shaped the direction of the field into the 21st century.[6]

While the majority of research in the psychology of music has focused on music in a Western context, the field has expanded along with ethnomusicology to examine how the perception and practice of music differs between cultures.[7][8] It has also emerged into the public sphere. In recent years several bestselling popular science books have helped bring the field into public discussion, notably Daniel Levitin's This Is Your Brain On Music (2006) and The World in Six Songs (2008), Oliver Sacks' Musicophilia (2007), and Gary Marcus' Guitar Zero (2012). In addition, the controversial "Mozart effect" sparked lengthy debate among researchers, educators, politicians, and the public regarding the relationship between classical music listening, education, and intelligence.[9]

Research areas

Perception and cognition

Much work within the psychology of music seeks to understand the cognitive processes that support musical behaviors, including perception, comprehension, memory, attention, and performance. Originally arising in fields of psychoacoustics and sensation, cognitive theories of how people understand music more recently encompass neuroscience, cognitive science, music theory, music therapy, computer science, psychology, philosophy, and linguistics.[10][11]

Affective response

Main article: Music and emotion

Music has been shown to consistently elicit emotional responses in its listeners, and this relationship between human affect and music has been studied in depth.[3] This includes isolating which specific features of a musical work or performance convey or elicit certain reactions, the nature of the reactions themselves, and how characteristics of the listener may determine which emotions are felt. The field draws upon and has significant implications for such areas as philosophy, musicology, and aesthetics, as well the acts of musical composition and performance. The implications for casual listeners are also great; research has shown that the pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of dopamine release in the striatum—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drug addiction.[12] According to research, listening to music has been found to affect the mood of an individual. The main factors in whether it will affect that individual positively or negatively are based on the musics tempo and style. In addition, listening to music also increases cognitive functions, creativity, and decreases feelings of fatigue. All of these factors lead to better workflow and a more optimal result in the activity done while listening to music. This leads to the conclusion that listening to music while performing an activity is an excellent way of increasing productivity and the overall experience.[13] It has been proposed that the ability to understand the emotional meaning of music might rely on the existence of a common neural system for processing the affective meaning of voices/vocalizations and musical sounds.[14][15] In addition to emotional responses, music has influenced the lifestyles of individuals and changed people's perceptions of what "sexy" is. Although music cannot resolve all human beings needs, it is heavily relied on to alter the feelings and emotions.

Neuropsychology

Main article: Cognitive neuroscience of music

A significant amount of research concerns brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music perception and performance. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory, computer science, and other allied fields, and use such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET).

The cognitive process of performing music requires the interaction of neural mechanisms in both motor and auditory systems. Since every action expressed in a performance produces a sound that influences subsequent expression, this leads to impressive sensorimotor interplay.[16]

Processing pitch

The primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.

Perceived pitch typically depends on the fundamental frequency, though the dependence could be mediated solely by the presence of harmonics corresponding to that fundamental frequency. The perception of a pitch without the corresponding fundamental frequency in the physical stimulus is called the pitch of the missing fundamental.[17] Neurons lateral to A1 in marmoset monkeys were found to be sensitive specifically to the fundamental frequency of a complex tone,[18] suggesting that pitch constancy may be enabled by such a neural mechanism.

Pitch constancy refers to the ability to perceive pitch identity across changes in acoustical properties, such as loudness, temporal envelope, or timbre.[17] The importance of cortical regions lateral to A1 for pitch coding is also supported by studies of human cortical lesions and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the brain.[19][20][21] These data suggest a hierarchical system for pitch processing, with more abstract properties of sound stimulus processed further along the processing pathways.

Absolute pitch
Main article: Absolute pitch

Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the pitch of a musical tone or to produce a musical tone at a given pitch without the use of an external reference pitch.[22] Researchers estimate the occurrence of AP to be 1 in 10,000 people.[23] The extent to which this ability is innate or learned is debated, with evidence for both a genetic basis and for a "critical period" in which the ability can be learned, especially in conjunction with early musical training.[24][25]

Processing rhythm

Behavioural studies demonstrate that rhythm and pitch can be perceived separately,[26] but that they also interact[27][28][29] in creating a musical perception. Studies of auditory rhythm discrimination and reproduction in patients with brain injury have linked these functions to the auditory regions of the temporal lobe, but have shown no consistent localization or lateralization.[30][31][32] Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies have shown that the motor regions of the brain contribute to both perception and production of rhythms.[33]

Even in studies where subjects only listen to rhythms, the basal ganglia, cerebellum, dorsal premotor cortex (dPMC) and supplementary motor area (SMA) are often implicated.[34][35][16] The analysis of rhythm may depend on interactions between the auditory and motor systems.

Dynamics

Dynamics in music refers to the volume of the music, or how loud the music is. 25% of American adults have some form of hearing loss from exposure to loud noise excessively. Loud volume can cause hearing loss that can occur with one singular loud noise, or consistently listening to loud noises. High sound levels can damage the hairs in the inner ear that receive sound, which can cause permanent hearing loss.[36]

Music at a lower volume can reduce anxiety and blood pressure while improving mood, alertness, and memory. Listening to music at a moderate volume can maximize the benefits of listening to music. This happens because you receive all of the positive benefits of listening to music, without the risk of permanently damaging the delicate aspects of the ear.[37]

Neural correlates of musical training

Although auditory–motor interactions can be observed in people without formal musical training, musicians are an excellent population to study because of their long-established and rich associations between auditory and motor systems. Musicians have been shown to have anatomical adaptations that correlate with their training.[17] Some neuroimaging studies have observed that musicians show lower levels of activity in motor regions than non-musicians during the performance of simple motor tasks, which may suggest a more efficient pattern of neural recruitment.[38][39][40][41] Other studies have shown that early musical training may positively affect word reading, by promoting the specialization of an extra right-sided "note visual area" to process spatially relevant visual information (i.e., pentagram, bars, etc.)[42] This neuroplastic effect might help prevent surface dyslexia. Music learning also involves the formation of novel audio visuomotor associations, which results in the ability to detect an incorrect association between sounds and the corresponding musical gestures,[43][44] also allowing to learn how to play a musical instrument.[45]

Motor imagery

Previous neuroimaging studies have consistently reported activity in the SMA and premotor areas, as well as in auditory cortices, when non-musicians imagine hearing musical excerpts.[17] Recruitment of the SMA and premotor areas is also reported when musicians are asked to imagine performing.[41][46]

Psychoacoustics

Main article: Psychoacoustics
Further information: Hearing (sense) and Auditory illusion

Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music). Topics of study include perception of the pitch, timbre, loudness and duration of musical sounds and the relevance of such studies for music cognition or the perceived structure of music; and auditory illusions and how humans localize sound, which can have relevance for musical composition and the design of venues for music performance. Psychoacoustics is a branch of psychophysics.

Cognitive musicology

Main article: Cognitive musicology

Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.[47]

Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of music cognition and cognitive neuroscience of music by a difference in methodological emphasis. Cognitive musicology uses computer modeling to study music-related knowledge representation and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories.[27][28][48][49]

This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs.[50] This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated.[51]

Evolutionary musicology

Main article: Evolutionary musicology

Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origin of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution".[52] It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage,[53] a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[54][55][56] An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function.[57] This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers.[58][59][60]

Cultural differences

Main article: Culture in music cognition
See also: Ethnomusicology

An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features.[61][62][63][64] Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music.[65][66]

Applied research areas

Some areas of research in the psychology of music focus on the application of music in everyday life as well as the practices and experiences of the amateur and professional musician. Each topic may utilize knowledge and techniques derived from one or more of the areas described above. Such areas include:

Music in society

Including:

Musical preference

Main article: Psychology of music preference

Consumers' choices in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits: openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. In general, the plasticity traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness).[67] Gender has been shown to influence preference, with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons.[68] Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood[69] and nostalgic association.[70]

Background music

Main article: Background music

The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including changes in behavior in the presence of different types, settings, or styles of music.[71] In laboratory settings, music can affect performance on cognitive tasks (memory, attention, and comprehension), both positively and negatively. Used extensively as an advertising aid, music may also affect marketing strategies, ad comprehension, and consumer choices. Background music can influence learning,[72][73] working memory and recall,[74][75] performance while working on tests,[76][77] and attention in cognitive monitoring tasks.[78][79] Background music can also be used as a way to relieve boredom, create positive moods, and maintain a private space.[80] Background music has been shown to put a restless mind at ease by presenting the listener with various melodies and tones.[80] It has been shown that listening to different types of music may modulate differently psychological mood and physiological responses associated with the induced emotions.[81] For example, listening to atonal music might result in reduced heart rate (fear bradycardia) and increased blood pressure (both diastolic and systolic), possibly reflecting an increase in alertness and attention, psychological tension, and anxiety.[82]

Music in marketing

Main article: Background music § Music in marketing

In both radio and television advertisements, music plays an integral role in content recall,[83][84][85] intentions to buy the product, and attitudes toward the advertisement and brand itself.[86][87][88] Music's effect on marketing has been studied in radio ads,[85][87][88] TV ads,[83][84][86] and physical retail settings.[89][90]

One of the most important aspects of an advertisement's music is the "musical fit", or the degree of congruity between cues in the ad and song content.[91] Advertisements and music can be congruous or incongruous for both lyrical and instrumental music. The timbre, tempo, lyrics, genre, mood, as well as any positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement and product.[91]

Music and productivity

Main article: Background music § Effects on cognitive performance

Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks.[92] One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace,[93] though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source of distraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role.[94] Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure, task complexity, and degree of control over the choice and use of music.[95]

Music education

Main article: Music education
One primary focus of the psychology of music concerns how best to teach music and the effects this has on childhood development.

Including:

Musical aptitude

Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.[3]

It is an issue closely related to that of intelligence and IQ, and was pioneered by the work of Carl Seashore. While early tests of aptitude, such as Seashore's The Measurement of Musical Talent, sought to measure innate musical talent through discrimination tests of pitch, interval, rhythm, consonance, memory, etc., later research found these approaches to have little predictive power and to be influenced greatly by the test-taker's mood, motivation, confidence, fatigue, and boredom when taking the test.[3]

Music performance

See also: Performance science

Including:

Music and health

Health benefits

Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[97] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[98] Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[99]

A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[100] Singing provides physical, cognitive, and emotional benefits to participants. When they step on stage, many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song. Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual's overall health and wellness, in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress, releasing of endorphins, and increased lung capacity.[101]

Effect on the brain

John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that "people who sing are more likely to be happy". This is because "singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being". Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; it is speculated that music was even used as an early form of social bonding.[102] As stated by Savage et al. (2020), Songs were also used to identify a socio-cultural connection between individuals, as songs typically vary. If two people knew the same song, they likely had a connection from previous generations (7), because song is often more memorable. Savage et al. continues by presenting evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans even before language. Furthermore, Levitin, in his This is Your Brain on Music, argues that "music may be the activity that prepared our pre-human ancestors for speech communication" and that "singing ... might have helped our species to refine motor skills, paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal ... speech" (260).[103] On the other hand, he cites Pinker, who "argued that language is an adaptation and music is its Spandrel ... an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language" (248).[103]

Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental, as well as physical, benefits of singing. When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year, three themes suggested three areas of benefits; the social impact (connectedness with others), personal impact (positive emotions, self-perception, etc.), and functional outcomes (health benefits of being in the choir). Findings showed that a sense of well-being is associated with singing, by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain. Many singers also reported that singing helped them regulate stress and relax, allowing them to deal better with their daily lives. From a social perspective, approval from the audience, and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial.

Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers. By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns, mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children. They also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy. A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past, and momentarily transport them, allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems.[104]

Effect on body

A recent study by Tenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients. The study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need, by reducing stress hormones, and increasing quantities of cytokines—proteins of the immune system that can increase the body's ability to fight disease. "Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation, as well as the learning benefits of processing information" says a musical director and accompanist in the study. The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below.[105]

Some have advocated, as in a 2011 article in the Toronto Star, that everyone sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of its health benefits. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation, and reminding them of happy times. It also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week. In addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts. Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function (the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech), so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals.[106]

Physical benefits
  1. Works the lungs, tones up the intercostals and diaphragm
  2. Improves sleep
  3. Benefits cardio function by improving aerobic capacity
  4. Relaxes overall muscle tension
  5. Improves posture
  6. Opens up sinuses and respiratory tubes
  7. With training, it could help decrease snoring
  8. Boosts immune system
  9. Helps patients manage pain
  10. Helps improve physical balance in people affected by illnesses such as Parkinson's disease[107] =====

Psychological benefits

  1. Reduces cortisol and stress
  2. Reduces blood pressure
  3. Releases endorphins
  4. Improves mood through release of dopamine and serotonin
  5. Eases anxiety of upcoming challenges[108] =====

Other concepts

See also: Music therapy and Music and sleep

Including:

Journals

Music psychology journals include:

Music psychologists also publish in a wide range of mainstream musicology, computational musicology, music theory/analysis, psychology, music education, music therapy, music medicine, and systematic musicology journals. The latter include for example:

Societies

  • Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (APSCOM)
  • Australian Music & Psychology Society (AMPS)
  • Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie (DGM)
  • European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM)
  • Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition (JSMPC)
  • Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (SEMPRE)
  • Society for Music Perception and Cognition (SMPC)

Centers of research and teaching

Australia:

Austria:

Belgium:

Canada:

Denmark:

Finland:

France:

Germany:

Iceland:

Ireland:

Italy:

Japan:

Korea:

Netherlands:

New Zealand:

Norway:

Poland:

Singapore:

Spain:

Sweden:

United Kingdom:

United States:

See also

References

  1. ^ Tan, Siu-Lan; Pfordresher, Peter; Harré, Rom (2010). Psychology of Music: From Sound to Significance. New York: Psychology Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-84169-868-7.
  2. ^ Thompson, William Forde (2009). Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music, 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-19-537707-1.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Deutsch, Diana; Gabrielsson, Alf; Sloboda, John; Cross, Ian; Drake, Carolyn; Parncutt, Richard; McAdams, Stephen; Clarke, Eric F.; Trehub, Sandra E.; O'Neill, Susan; Hargreaves, David; Kemp, Anthony; North, Adrian; Zatorre, Robert J. (2001). "Psychology of music". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.42574. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.
  4. ^ "Musicology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-03-29.
  5. ^ Ockelford, Adam (2009). "Beyond music psychology". In Hallam, Susan; Cross, Ian; Thaut, Michael (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 539. ISBN 978-0-19-929845-7.
  6. ^ Thaut, Micahel (2009). "History and research". In Hallam, Susan; Cross, Ian; Thaut, Michael (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-19-929845-7.
  7. ^ Thaut, Micahel (2009). "History and research". In Hallam, Susan; Cross, Ian; Thaut, Michael (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 559. ISBN 978-0-19-929845-7.
  8. ^ Thompson, William Forde; Balkwill, Laura-Lee (2010). "Cross-cultural similarities and differences". In Juslin, Patrik; Sloboda, John (eds.). Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications (ch. 27). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 755–788. ISBN 978-0-19-960496-8.
  9. ^ Abbott, Alison. "Mozart doesn't make you clever". Nature.com. Retrieved 2014-04-22.
  10. ^ Deutsch, Diana, ed. (2013). The Psychology of Music, 3rd Edition. San Diego, California: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-381460-9.
  11. ^ Thompson, William Forde, ed. (2014). Encyclopedia of Music in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York, New York: Sage Press. ISBN 978-1-4522-8303-6.
  12. ^ Salimpoor, Valorie N; Benovoy, Mitchel; Larcher, Kevin; Dagher, Alain; Zatorre, Robert J (February 2011). "Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (2): 257–262. doi:10.1038/nn.2726. PMID 21217764. S2CID 205433454.
  13. ^ Campion, Maxine; Levita, Liat (4 March 2014). "Enhancing positive affect and divergent thinking abilities: Play some music and dance". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 9 (2): 137–145. doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.848376. S2CID 143123616.
  14. ^ Proverbio, Alice Mado; Benedetto, Francesco De; Guazzone, Martina (2020). "Shared neural mechanisms for processing emotions in music and vocalizations". European Journal of Neuroscience. 51 (9): 1987–2007. doi:10.1111/ejn.14650. hdl:10281/254609. ISSN 1460-9568. PMID 31837173. S2CID 209357763.
  15. ^ Proverbio, Alice Mado; Santoni, Sacha; Adorni, Roberta (2020-03-27). "ERP Markers of Valence Coding in Emotional Speech Processing". iScience. 23 (3): 100933. Bibcode:2020iSci...23j0933P. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2020.100933. ISSN 2589-0042. PMC 7063241. PMID 32151976.
  16. ^ a b Zatorre, Robert J.; Chen, Joyce L.; Penhune, Virginia B. (2007). "When the Brain Plays Music: Auditory–motor Interactions in Music Perception and Production". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 8 (7): 547–58. doi:10.1038/nrn2152. PMID 17585307. S2CID 205503868.
  17. ^ a b c d Zatorre, R. J.; Halpern, A. R. (2005). "Mental concerts: musical imagery and auditory cortex". Neuron. 47 (1): 9–12. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.06.013. PMID 15996544. S2CID 1613599.
  18. ^ Bendor, D.; Wang, X. (2005). "The neuronal representation of pitch in primate auditory cortex". Nature. 436 (7054): 1161–1165. Bibcode:2005Natur.436.1161B. doi:10.1038/nature03867. PMC 1780171. PMID 16121182.
  19. ^ Zatorre1, R. J. (1988). "Pitch perception of complex tones and human temporal-lobe function". J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 84 (2): 566–572. Bibcode:1988ASAJ...84..566Z. doi:10.1121/1.396834. PMID 3170948.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Johnsrude, I. S.; Penhune, V. B.; Zatorre, R. J. (2000). "Functional specificity in the right human auditory cortex for perceiving pitch direction". Brain. 123: 155–163. doi:10.1093/brain/123.1.155. PMID 10611129.
  21. ^ Penagos, H.; Melcher, J. R.; Oxenham, A. J. (2004). "A neural representation of pitch salience in nonprimary human auditory cortex revealed with functional magnetic resonance imaging". J. Neurosci. 24 (30): 6810–6815. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0383-04.2004. PMC 1794212. PMID 15282286.
  22. ^ Takeuchi, Annie H.; Hulse, Stewart H. (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin. 113 (2): 345–61. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.345. PMID 8451339.
  23. ^ Sacks, O. (5 May 1995). "Musical ability". Science. 268 (5211): 621–622. Bibcode:1995Sci...268..621S. doi:10.1126/science.7732360. PMID 7732360. S2CID 39114788.
  24. ^ Theusch, Elizabeth; Basu, Analabha; Gitschier, Jane (July 2009). "Genome-wide Study of Families with Absolute Pitch Reveals Linkage to 8q24.21 and Locus Heterogeneity". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 85 (1): 112–119. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.010. PMC 2706961. PMID 19576568.
  25. ^ Snyder, Bob (2009). "Memory for music". In Hallam, Susan; Cross, Ian; Thaut, Michael (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-19-929845-7.
  26. ^ Krumhansl, C. L. (2000). "Rhythm and pitch in music cognition". Psychol. Bull. 126 (1): 159–179. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.159. PMID 10668354.
  27. ^ a b Tanguiane (Tangian), Andranick (1993). Artificial Perception and Music Recognition. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. Vol. 746. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-57394-4.[page needed]
  28. ^ a b Tanguiane (Tangian), Andranick (1994). "Principle of correlativity of perception and its applications to music recognition". Music Perception. 11 (4): 465–502. doi:10.2307/40285634. JSTOR 40285634.
  29. ^ Jones, Mari Riess; Moynihan, Heather; MacKenzie, Noah; Puente, Jennifer (July 2002). "Temporal Aspects of Stimulus-Driven Attending in Dynamic Arrays". Psychological Science. 13 (4): 313–319. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00458. PMID 12137133. S2CID 5110638.
  30. ^ Penhune, V. B.; Zatorre, R. J.; Feindel, W. H. (1999). "The role of auditory cortex in retention of rhythmic patterns in patients with temporal-lobe removals including Heschl's gyrus". Neuropsychologia. 37 (3): 315–331. doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(98)00075-x. PMID 10199645. S2CID 677087.
  31. ^ Peretz, I. (1990). "Processing of local & global musical information by unilateral brain-damaged patients". Brain. 113 (4): 1185–1205. doi:10.1093/brain/113.4.1185. PMID 2397389.
  32. ^ Kester, D.Brian; Saykin, Andrew J.; Sperling, Michael R.; O'Connor, Michael J.; Robinson, Lindsey J.; Gur, Ruben C. (January 1991). "Acute effect of anterior temporal lobectomy on musical processing". Neuropsychologia. 29 (7): 703–708. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(91)90104-g. PMID 1944872. S2CID 30437232.
  33. ^ Janata, P.; Grafton, S. T. (2003). "Swinging in the brain: shared neural substrates for behaviors related to sequencing and music". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (7): 682–687. doi:10.1038/nn1081. PMID 12830159. S2CID 7605155.
  34. ^ Sakai, Katsuyuki; Hikosaka, Okihide; Miyauchi, Satoru; Takino, Ryousuke; Tamada, Tomoe; Iwata, Nobue Kobayashi; Nielsen, Mathew (15 November 1999). "Neural Representation of a Rhythm Depends on Its Interval Ratio". The Journal of Neuroscience. 19 (22): 10074–10081. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-22-10074.1999. PMC 6782989. PMID 10559415.
  35. ^ Grahn, J. A.; Brett, M. (2007). "Rhythm and beat perception in motor areas of the brain". J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19 (5): 893–906. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.119.5718. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.893. PMID 17488212. S2CID 5992236.
  36. ^ Burrows, David (1997-10-01). "A Dynamical Systems Perspective on Music". Journal of Musicology. 15 (4): 529–545. doi:10.2307/764006. ISSN 0277-9269. JSTOR 764006.
  37. ^ "Keep Your Brain Young with Music". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 2022-04-13. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
  38. ^ Hund-Georgiadis, M.; von Cramon, D. Y. (1999). "Motorlearning-related changes in piano players and nonmusicians revealed by functional magnetic-resonance signals". Exp Brain Res. 125 (4): 417–425. doi:10.1007/s002210050698. PMID 10323287. S2CID 1520500.
  39. ^ Jancke, L.; Shah, N. J.; Peters, M. (2000). "Cortical activations in primary and secondary motor areas for complex bimanual movements in professional pianists". Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 10 (1–2): 177–183. doi:10.1016/s0926-6410(00)00028-8. PMID 10978706.
  40. ^ Koeneke, Susan; Lutz, Kai; Wüstenberg, Torsten; Jäncke, Lutz (June 2004). "Long-term training affects cerebellar processing in skilled keyboard players". NeuroReport. 15 (8): 1279–1282. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000127463.10147.e7. PMID 15167549. S2CID 14517466.
  41. ^ a b Meister, I.G; Krings, T; Foltys, H; Boroojerdi, B; Müller, M; Töpper, R; Thron, A (May 2004). "Playing piano in the mind—an fMRI study on music imagery and performance in pianists". Cognitive Brain Research. 19 (3): 219–228. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2003.12.005. PMID 15062860.
  42. ^ Proverbio, Alice Mado; Manfredi, Mirella; Zani, Alberto; Adorni, Roberta (2013-02-01). "Musical expertise affects neural bases of letter recognition". Neuropsychologia. 51 (3): 538–549. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.12.001. ISSN 0028-3932. PMID 23238370. S2CID 34342790.
  43. ^ Proverbio, Alice M.; Attardo, Lapo; Cozzi, Matteo; Zani, Alberto (2015). "The effect of musical practice on gesture/sound pairing". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 376. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00376. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 4382982. PMID 25883580.
  44. ^ Proverbio, Alice Mado; Cozzi, Matteo; Orlandi, Andrea; Carminati, Manuel (2017-03-27). "Error-related negativity in the skilled brain of pianists reveals motor simulation". Neuroscience. 346: 309–319. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.030. ISSN 0306-4522. PMID 28153687. S2CID 26621367.
  45. ^ Mado Proverbio, Alice; Calbi, Marta; Manfredi, Mirella; Zani, Alberto (2014-07-29). "Audio-visuomotor processing in the Musician's brain: an ERP study on professional violinists and clarinetists". Scientific Reports. 4: 5866. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E5866M. doi:10.1038/srep05866. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5376193. PMID 25070060.
  46. ^ Langheim, F; Callicott, JH; Mattay, VS; Duyn, JH; Weinberger, DR (August 2002). "Cortical Systems Associated with Covert Music Rehearsal". NeuroImage. 16 (4): 901–908. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1144. PMID 12202078. S2CID 18505370.
  47. ^ Laske, Otto (1999). Navigating New Musical Horizons (Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance). Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30632-7.
  48. ^ Tanguiane, Andranik (September 1995). "Towards axiomatization of music perception 1 ast;". Journal of New Music Research. 24 (3): 247–281. doi:10.1080/09298219508570685.
  49. ^ Laske, O. (1999). AI and music: A cornerstone of cognitive musicology. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske (Eds.), Understanding music with AI: Perspectives on music cognition. Cambridge: The MIT Press.[page needed]
  50. ^ Graci, Craig (December 2009). "A Brief Tour of the Learning Sciences via a Cognitive Tool for Investigating Melodic Phenomena". Journal of Educational Technology Systems. 38 (2): 181–211. doi:10.2190/ET.38.2.i. S2CID 62657981.
  51. ^ Hamman, M., 1999. "Structure as Performance: Cognitive Musicology and the Objectification of Procedure," in Otto Laske: Navigating New Musical Horizons, ed. J. Tabor. New York: Greenwood Press.[page needed]
  52. ^ Wallin, Nils Lennart; Merker, Björn; Brown, Steven (2000). "An Introduction to Evolutionary Musicology". In Wallin, Nils Lennart; Merker, Björn; Brown, Steven (eds.). The origins of music. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-262-28569-8. OCLC 44963330.
  53. ^ "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex". 1871. Archived from the original on 2012-04-02. Retrieved 2014-04-24. Chapter III; Language
  54. ^ Wallin, Nils Lennart; Merker, Björn; Brown, Steven, eds. (2000). The origins of music. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-28569-8. OCLC 44963330.
  55. ^ Steven Mithen, The Singing Neanderthals: the Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body, Harvard University Press, 2006.[page needed]
  56. ^ Hagen, Edward H.; Hammerstein, Peter (September 2009). "Did Neanderthals and other early humans sing? Seeking the biological roots of music in the territorial advertisements of primates, lions, hyenas, and wolves". Musicae Scientiae. 13 (2_suppl): 291–320. doi:10.1177/1029864909013002131. S2CID 39481097.
  57. ^ Pinker, Steven (1997). How the Mind Works. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 534. ISBN 978-0-393-04535-2.
  58. ^ Perlovsky, Leonid (July 2012). "Cognitive function, origin, and evolution of musical emotions". Musicae Scientiae. 16 (2): 185–199. doi:10.1177/1029864912448327. S2CID 143982010.
  59. ^ Abbott, Alison (2002). "Neurobiology: Music, maestro, please!". Nature. 416 (6876): 12–14. Bibcode:2002Natur.416...12A. doi:10.1038/416012a. PMID 11882864. S2CID 4420891.
  60. ^ Honing, Henkjan; Ploeger, Annemie (October 2012). "Cognition and the Evolution of Music: Pitfalls and Prospects". Topics in Cognitive Science. 4 (4): 513–524. doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01210.x. PMID 22760967. S2CID 2466554.
  61. ^ Soley, Gaye; Hannon, Erin E. (2010). "Infants prefer the musical meter of their own culture: A cross-cultural comparison". Developmental Psychology. 46 (1): 286–292. doi:10.1037/a0017555. PMID 20053025. S2CID 2868086.
  62. ^ Balkwill, L.; Thompson, W. F.; Matsunaga, R. (2004). "Recognition of emotion in Japanese, Western, and Hindustani music by Japanese listeners". Japanese Psychological Research. 46 (4): 337–349. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5584.2004.00265.x.
  63. ^ Athanasopoulos, George; Eerola, Tuomas; Lahdelma, Imre; Kaliakatsos-Papakostas, Maximos (2021-01-13). "Harmonic organisation conveys both universal and culture-specific cues for emotional expression in music". PLOS ONE. 16 (1): e0244964. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1644964A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244964. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7806179. PMID 33439887.
  64. ^ Smit, Eline Adrianne; Milne, Andrew J.; Sarvasy, Hannah S.; Dean, Roger T. (2022-06-29). "Emotional responses in Papua New Guinea show negligible evidence for a universal effect of major versus minor music". PLOS ONE. 17 (6): e0269597. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1769597S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269597. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9242494. PMID 35767551.
  65. ^ Demorest, S. M.; Morrison, S. J.; Beken, M. N.; Jungbluth, D. (2008). "Lost in translation: An enculturation effect in music memory performance". Music Perception. 25 (3): 213–223. doi:10.1525/mp.2008.25.3.213.
  66. ^ Groussard, M.; Rauchs, G.; Landeau, B.; Viader, F.; Desgranges, B.; Eustache, F.; Platel, H. (December 2010). "The neural substrates of musical memory revealed by fMRI and two semantic tasks" (PDF). NeuroImage. 53 (4): 1301–1309. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.013. PMID 20627131. S2CID 8955075.
  67. ^ Miranda, Dave; Morizot, Julien; Gaudreau, Patrick (January 2010). "Personality Metatraits and Music Preferences in Adolescence: A Pilot Study". International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 15 (4): 289–301. doi:10.1080/02673843.2010.9748036. S2CID 145681242.
  68. ^ Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas; Swami, Viren; Cermakova, Blanka (May 2012). "Individual differences in music consumption are predicted by uses of music and age rather than emotional intelligence, neuroticism, extraversion or openness". Psychology of Music. 40 (3): 285–300. doi:10.1177/0305735610381591. S2CID 145730770.
  69. ^ Vuoskoski, Jonna K.; Eerola, Tuomas (July 2011). "Measuring music-induced emotion: A comparison of emotion models, personality biases, and intensity of experiences". Musicae Scientiae. 15 (2): 159–173. doi:10.1177/1029864911403367. S2CID 144079608.
  70. ^ Barrett, Frederick S.; Grimm, Kevin J.; Robins, Richard W.; Wildschut, Tim; Sedikides, Constantine; Janata, Petr (2010). "Music-evoked nostalgia: Affect, memory, and personality". Emotion. 10 (3): 390–403. doi:10.1037/a0019006. PMID 20515227. S2CID 17454039.
  71. ^ Kämpfe, Juliane; Sedlmeier, Peter; Renkewitz, Frank (October 2011). "The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis". Psychology of Music. 39 (4): 424–448. doi:10.1177/0305735610376261. S2CID 145772362.
  72. ^ de Groot, Annette M. B. (September 2006). "Effects of Stimulus Characteristics and Background Music on Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning and Forgetting: Language Learning". Language Learning. 56 (3): 463–506. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00374.x. S2CID 145797054.
  73. ^ Aheadi, Afshin; Dixon, Peter; Glover, Scott (January 2010). "A limiting feature of the Mozart effect: listening enhances mental rotation abilities in non-musicians but not musicians". Psychology of Music. 38 (1): 107–117. doi:10.1177/0305735609336057. S2CID 145376995.
  74. ^ Alley, Thomas R.; Greene, Marcie E. (December 2008). "The Relative and Perceived Impact of Irrelevant Speech, Vocal Music and Non-vocal Music on Working Memory". Current Psychology. 27 (4): 277–289. doi:10.1007/s12144-008-9040-z. S2CID 145460089.
  75. ^ Cassidy, Gianna; MacDonald, Raymond A.R. (July 2007). "The effect of background music and background noise on the task performance of introverts and extraverts". Psychology of Music. 35 (3): 517–537. doi:10.1177/0305735607076444. S2CID 15449446.
  76. ^ Patston, Lucy L. M.; Tippett, Lynette J. (1 December 2011). "The Effect of Background Music on Cognitive Performance in Musicians and Nonmusicians". Music Perception. 29 (2): 173–183. doi:10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.173. S2CID 53597018.
  77. ^ Avila, Christina; Furnham, Adrian; McClelland, Alastair (January 2012). "The influence of distracting familiar vocal music on cognitive performance of introverts and extraverts". Psychology of Music. 40 (1): 84–93. doi:10.1177/0305735611422672. S2CID 145340833.
  78. ^ Olivers, Christian N.L.; Nieuwenhuis, Sander (April 2005). "The Beneficial Effect of Concurrent Task-Irrelevant Mental Activity on Temporal Attention" (PDF). Psychological Science. 16 (4): 265–269. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01526.x. PMID 15828972. S2CID 1023921.
  79. ^ Beanland, Vanessa; Allen, Rosemary A.; Pammer, Kristen (December 2011). "Attending to music decreases inattentional blindness". Consciousness and Cognition. 20 (4): 1282–1292. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.04.009. PMID 21555226. S2CID 13142755.
  80. ^ a b Schäfer, Thomas; Sedlmeier, Peter; Städtler, Christine; Huron, David (2013). "The psychological functions of music listening". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 511. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00511. PMC 3741536. PMID 23964257.
  81. ^ Proverbio, A. M.; De Benedetto, F. (2018-02-01). "Auditory enhancement of visual memory encoding is driven by emotional content of the auditory material and mediated by superior frontal cortex". Biological Psychology. 132: 164–175. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.12.003. ISSN 0301-0511. PMID 29292233. S2CID 206111258.
  82. ^ Proverbio, Alice M.; Manfrin, Luigi; Arcari, Laura A.; De Benedetto, Francesco; Gazzola, Martina; Guardamagna, Matteo; Lozano Nasi, Valentina; Zani, Alberto (2015). "Non-expert listeners show decreased heart rate and increased blood pressure (fear bradycardia) in response to atonal music". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 1646. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01646. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 4623197. PMID 26579029.
  83. ^ a b Hahn, Minhi; Hwang, Insuk (1999). "Effects of tempo and familiarity of background music on message processing in TV advertising: A resource-matching perspective". Psychology & Marketing. 16 (8): 659–675. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(199912)16:8<659::AID-MAR3>3.0.CO;2-S.
  84. ^ a b Park, C. Whan; Young, S. Mark (February 1986). "Consumer Response to Television Commercials: The Impact of Involvement and Background Music on Brand Attitude Formation". Journal of Marketing Research. 23 (1): 11. doi:10.2307/3151772. JSTOR 3151772.
  85. ^ a b Oakes, Steve; North, Adrian C. (May 2006). "The impact of background musical tempo and timbre congruity upon ad content recall and affective response". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 20 (4): 505–520. doi:10.1002/acp.1199.
  86. ^ a b Lalwani, Ashok K.; Lwin, May O.; Ling, Pee Beng (14 April 2009). "Does Audiovisual Congruency in Advertisements Increase Persuasion? The Role of Cultural Music and Products". Journal of Global Marketing. 22 (2): 139–153. doi:10.1080/08911760902765973. S2CID 145718621.
  87. ^ a b Zander, Mark F. (October 2006). "Musical influences in advertising: how music modifies first impressions of product endorsers and brands". Psychology of Music. 34 (4): 465–480. doi:10.1177/0305735606067158. S2CID 26523687.
  88. ^ a b Lavack, Anne M.; Thakor, Mrugank V.; Bottausci, Ingrid (January 2008). "Music-brand congruency in highand low-cognition radio advertising". International Journal of Advertising. 27 (4): 549–568. doi:10.2501/S0265048708080141. S2CID 144130812.
  89. ^ Eroglu, Sevgin A.; Machleit, Karen A.; Chebat, Jean-Charles (July 2005). "The interaction of retail density and music tempo: Effects on shopper responses". Psychology and Marketing. 22 (7): 577–589. doi:10.1002/mar.20074.
  90. ^ Chebat, Jean-Charles; Chebat, Claire Gélinas; Vaillant, Dominique (November 2001). "Environmental background music and in-store selling". Journal of Business Research. 54 (2): 115–123. doi:10.1016/S0148-2963(99)00089-2.
  91. ^ a b OAKES, STEVE (1 January 2007). "Evaluating Empirical Research into Music in Advertising: A Congruity Perspective". Journal of Advertising Research. 47 (1): 38. doi:10.2501/S0021849907070055. S2CID 167412833.
  92. ^ "Is Background Music a Boost or a Bummer?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2018-04-17.
  93. ^ Lesiuk, Teresa (April 2005). "The effect of music listening on work performance". Psychology of Music. 33 (2): 173–191. doi:10.1177/0305735605050650. S2CID 146413962.
  94. ^ "Music at work: distracting or beneficial? - Anneli B. Haake PhD". musicatwork.net. Retrieved 2018-04-17.
  95. ^ "Research Shows Listening to Music Increases Productivity (and Some Types of Music Are Super Effective)". Inc.com. 2017-09-19. Retrieved 2018-04-17.
  96. ^ Shelvock, Matt (16 January 2017). "Gestalt Theory and Mixing Audio". In Hepworth-Sawyer, R.; Hodgson, J.; Toulson, R.; Paterson, J. L. (eds.). Innovation in Music II. Lulu.com. pp. 75–87. ISBN 978-1-911108-04-7.
  97. ^ Clift, SM; Hancox, G (2001). "The perceived benefits of singing". The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. 121 (4): 248–256. doi:10.1177/146642400112100409. PMID 11811096. S2CID 21896613.
  98. ^ Heller, Stanley S; Hicks, William R; Root, Walter S (1960). "Lung volumes of singers". J Appl Physiol. 15 (1): 40–42. doi:10.1152/jappl.1960.15.1.40. PMID 14400875.
  99. ^ Kreutz, Gunter; Bongard, Stephan; Rohrmann, Sonja; Hodapp, Volker; Grebe, Dorothee (December 2004). "Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory immunoglobulin A, cortisol, and emotional state". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 27 (6): 623–635. doi:10.1007/s10865-004-0006-9. PMID 15669447. S2CID 20330950.
  100. ^ Mick, Hayley (19 June 2009). "Doctor's prescription: 2 arias + a chorus". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015.
  101. ^ Clarke, Heather Laura (20 June 2014). "Chronicle-Herald". ProQuest 1774037978.
  102. ^ Patrick E. Savage; Psyche Loui; Bronwyn Tarr; Adena Schachner; Luke Glowacki; Steven Mithen; W. Tecumseh Fitch (2021). "Music as a Coevolved System for Social Bonding". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 44: e59. doi:10.1017/S0140525X20000333. PMID 32814608. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
  103. ^ a b Levitin, Daniel J. (2006). This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York: Plume. ISBN 978-0-452-28852-2.
  104. ^ Dingle, Genevieve (2012). ""To be heard": The social and mental health benefits of choir singing for disadvantaged adults" (PDF). Psychology of Music. 41 (4): 405–421. doi:10.1177/0305735611430081. S2CID 146401780.
  105. ^ sciencedaily, ecancermedicalscience (4 April 2016). "Choir singing boosts immune system activity in cancer patients and carers, study shows". Retrieved 10 November 2016.
  106. ^ Dr. Oz; Dr. Roizen (25 April 2011). "You Docs: 5 reasons to sing – even if you can't carry a tune". The Star. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2011 – via Proquest.
  107. ^ Symblème, Catharine (2014-03-26). "21 Incredible Benefits of Singing That Will Impress You". Lifehack. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
  108. ^ "Healing Benefits". Listen4Life Foundation. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
  109. ^ Musgrave, George; Gross, Sally Anne (2020-09-29). Can Music Make You Sick?. University of Westminster Press. doi:10.16997/book43. ISBN 978-1-912656-62-2. S2CID 224842613.
  110. ^ "Dt. Gesellsch. f. Musikpsychologie" (in German). Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  111. ^ "Journal of Mathematics and Music". Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  112. ^ "Macquarie University; Music, Sound and Performance Lab". 2002-05-22. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  113. ^ "Melbourne University; Music, Music, Mind and Wellbeing Initiative". Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  114. ^ "UNSW; Empirical Musicology Group". Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  115. ^ "University of Western Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotion". Archived from the original on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  116. ^ "University of Western Sydney; The MARCS Institute". Archived from the original on 18 April 2015. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  117. ^ "University of Graz; Centre for Systematic Musicology". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  118. ^ "University of Klagenfurt; Cognitive Psychology Unit". Retrieved 8 April 2014.
  119. ^ "University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna; Wiener Klangstil". Retrieved 11 November 2022.
  120. ^ "Ghent University; Institute for Psychoacoustics and Electronic Music". Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  121. ^ "McGill University; CIRMMT". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  122. ^ "University of Toronto; MaHRC". Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  123. ^ "Queens University; Music Cognition Lab". Archived from the original on 7 December 2014. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  124. ^ "University of PEI; Auditory Perception and Music Cognition Research and Training Laboratory". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  125. ^ "Ryerson University; SMART Lab". Archived from the original on 19 April 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  126. ^ "McMaster University; MAPLE Lab". Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  127. ^ "McMaster University; Digital Music Lab". Retrieved 24 June 2021.
  128. ^ "McMaster University; MIMM". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  129. ^ "BRAMS - International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  130. ^ "University of Montreal; Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  131. ^ "University of Western Ontario; Music and Neuroscience Lab". Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  132. ^ "Aarhus University; Center for Music in the brain". Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  133. ^ "University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Music, Mind, Body and Brain". Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  134. ^ "Claude Bernard University Lyon 1; CAP". Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  135. ^ "Centre Pompidou; IRCAM; Research". Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
  136. ^ "Institute for Systematic Musicology, Universität Hamburg". Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  137. ^ "HMTMH; Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine". Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  138. ^ "HMTMH; Hanover Music Lab". Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  139. ^ "University of Iceland, Research Units". Archived from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
  140. ^ "University of Milano-Bicocca;".
  141. ^ "University of Amsterdam; Music Cognition Group". Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  142. ^ "The Music Lab". Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  143. ^ "University of Oslo, RITMO". Retrieved 8 September 2024. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help)
  144. ^ "Norwegian Academy of Music; Centre for Music and Health". Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  145. ^ "FC University of Music; Unit of Psychology of Music". Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  146. ^ "University of Finance and Management in Warsaw; Music Performance and Brain Lab". Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  147. ^ "Institute of High Performance Computing, A*STAR; Music Cognition Group". Retrieved 15 Jan 2018.
  148. ^ "Pompeu Fabra University; Music Technology Group". Retrieved 23 April 2014.
  149. ^ "Royal Institute of Technology, Speech, Music and Hearing". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  150. ^ "Uppsala University; Music Psychology Group". Archived from the original on 14 February 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  151. ^ "Cambridge University; Centre for Music and Science". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  152. ^ "University of Edinburgh; Music and the Human Sciences". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  153. ^ "Keele University; Centre for Psychological Research". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  154. ^ "Durham University; Music and Science Lab". Retrieved 10 December 2017.
  155. ^ "University of Leeds; ICSRiM". Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  156. ^ "University of Leicester; Social and Applied Psychology Group". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  157. ^ "Goldsmiths; Music, Mind and Brain". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  158. ^ "UCL Institute of Education; International Music Education Research Centre". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  159. ^ "Queen Mary University of London; Music Cognition Lab". Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  160. ^ "University of Oxford; Psychology of Music". Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  161. ^ "University of Roehampton; Applied Music Research Centre". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  162. ^ "Royal College of Music; Centre for Performance Science". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  163. ^ "Royal Northern College of Music; Centre for Music Performance Research". Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  164. ^ "Sheffield University; Department of Music, Psychology of Music Research". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  165. ^ "Music and Neuroimaging Laboratory". Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  166. ^ "University at Buffalo; Auditory Perception & Action Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  167. ^ "UCD; Janata Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  168. ^ "UCLA; Roger Kendall Bio". Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  169. ^ "UCSD; Diana Deutsch profile". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  170. ^ "UCSB Music Cognition Lab". Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  171. ^ Foran, Sheila (2014-02-03). "Theoretical Neuroscientist Ed Large Joins UConn Faculty". UConn Today. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
  172. ^ "Cornell University; The Music Cognition Laboratory". Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  173. ^ "University of Rochester; Music Cognition at Eastman School of Music". Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
  174. ^ "Florida State University; Center for Music Research". Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  175. ^ "Louisiana State University; Music Cognition and Computation Lab". Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
  176. ^ "University of Maryland; Language and Music Cognition Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  177. ^ "UNLV; Auditory Cognition and Development Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  178. ^ "Northwestern University; Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory". Retrieved 29 April 2014.
  179. ^ "Northwestern University; Music Theory and Cognition Program". Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  180. ^ "Princeton University; Music Cognition Lab". Retrieved 19 August 2019.
  181. ^ "Ohio State University; Cognitive and Systematic Musicology Laboratory". Archived from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
  182. ^ "University of Oregon; Music Learning, Perception, and Cognition Focus Group". Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  183. ^ "Stanford University; Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics". Retrieved 6 April 2014.
  184. ^ "University of Texas at Dallas; Dowling Laboratory". Archived from the original on 4 October 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  185. ^ "University of Texas at San Antonio; Institute for Music Research". Retrieved 21 April 2014.
  186. ^ "University of Washington; MCCL". Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  187. ^ "Wesleyan University; MIND Lab". Retrieved 28 October 2014.
  188. ^ "Western Michigan University; BRAIN Lab". Retrieved 29 April 2014.

Further reading

Encyclopedia entries

Introductory reading

Advanced reading