Speech is the use of the human voice as a medium for language. Spoken language combines vowel and consonant sounds to form units of meaning like words, which belong to a language's lexicon. There are many different intentional speech acts, such as informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing; acts may vary in various aspects like enunciation, intonation, loudness, and tempo to convey meaning. Individuals may also unintentionally communicate aspects of their social position through speech, such as sex, age, place of origin, physiological and mental condition, education, and experiences.
While normally used to facilitate communication with others, people may also use speech without the intent to communicate. Speech may nevertheless express emotions or desires; people talk to themselves sometimes in acts that are a development of what some psychologists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky) have maintained is the use of silent speech in an interior monologue to vivify and organize cognition, sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self addressing self as though addressing another person. Solo speech can be used to memorize or to test one's memorization of things, and in prayer or in meditation.
The evolutionary origin of speech is subject to debate and speculation. While animals also communicate using vocalizations, and trained apes such as Washoe and Kanzi can use simple sign language, no animals' vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute speech.
Although related to the more general problem of the origin of language, the evolution of distinctively human speech capacities has become a distinct and in many ways separate area of scientific research.[2][3][4][5][6] The topic is a separate one because language is not necessarily spoken: it can equally be written or signed. Speech is in this sense optional, although it is the default modality for language.
Monkeys, non-human apes and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing sound for purposes of social communication.[7] On the other hand, no monkey or ape uses its tongue for such purposes.[8][9] The human species' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars.[10]
Determining the timeline of human speech evolution is made additionally challenging by the lack of data in the fossil record. The human vocal tract does not fossilize, and indirect evidence of vocal tract changes in hominid fossils has proven inconclusive.[10]
Speech production is an unconscious multi-step process by which thoughts are generated into spoken utterances. Production involves the unconscious mind selecting appropriate words and the appropriate form of those words from the lexicon and morphology, and the organization of those words through the syntax. Then, the phonetic properties of the words are retrieved and the sentence is articulated through the articulations associated with those phonetic properties.[11]
In linguistics, articulatory phonetics is the study of how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs are used to make sounds. Speech sounds are categorized by manner of articulation and place of articulation. Place of articulation refers to where in the neck or mouth the airstream is constricted. Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which the speech organs interact, such as how closely the air is restricted, what form of airstream is used (e.g. pulmonic, implosive, ejectives, and clicks), whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, and whether the nasal cavity is opened to the airstream.[12] The concept is primarily used for the production of consonants, but can be used for vowels in qualities such as voicing and nasalization. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several homorganic consonants.
Normal human speech is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the lungs, which creates phonation in the glottis in the larynx, which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in alaryngeal speech, of which there are three types: esophageal speech, pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as Donald Duck talk).
Speech production is a complex activity, and as a consequence errors are common, especially in children. Speech errors come in many forms and are used to provide evidence to support hypotheses about the nature of speech.[13] As a result, speech errors are often used in the construction of models for language production and child language acquisition. For example, the fact that children often make the error of over-regularizing the -ed past tense suffix in English (e.g. saying 'singed' instead of 'sang') shows that the regular forms are acquired earlier.[14][15] Speech errors associated with certain kinds of aphasia have been used to map certain components of speech onto the brain and see the relation between different aspects of production; for example, the difficulty of expressive aphasia patients in producing regular past-tense verbs, but not irregulars like 'sing-sang' has been used to demonstrate that regular inflected forms of a word are not individually stored in the lexicon, but produced from affixation to the base form.[16]
Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonetics and phonology in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand spoken language. Research into speech perception also has applications in building computer systems that can recognize speech, as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.[17]
Speech perception is categorical, in that people put the sounds they hear into categories rather than perceiving them as a spectrum. People are more likely to be able to hear differences in sounds across categorical boundaries than within them. A good example of this is voice onset time (VOT), one aspect of the phonetic production of consonant sounds. For example, Hebrew speakers, who distinguish voiced /b/ from voiceless /p/, will more easily detect a change in VOT from -10 ( perceived as /b/ ) to 0 ( perceived as /p/ ) than a change in VOT from +10 to +20, or -10 to -20, despite this being an equally large change on the VOT spectrum.[18]
Most human children develop proto-speech babbling behaviors when they are four to six months old. Most will begin saying their first words at some point during the first year of life. Typical children progress through two or three word phrases before three years of age followed by short sentences by four years of age.[19]
In speech repetition, speech being heard is quickly turned from sensory input into motor instructions needed for its immediate or delayed vocal imitation (in phonological memory). This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary. Masur (1995) found that how often children repeat novel words versus those they already have in their lexicon is related to the size of their lexicon later on, with young children who repeat more novel words having a larger lexicon later in development. Speech repetition could help facilitate the acquisition of this larger lexicon.[20]
Diseases and disorders of the brain, including alogia, aphasias, dysarthria, dystonia and speech processing disorders, where impaired motor planning, nerve transmission, phonological processing or perception of the message (as opposed to the actual sound) leads to poor speech production.
Hearing problems, such as otitis media with effusion, and listening problems, auditory processing disorders, can lead to phonological problems. In addition to dysphasia, anomia and auditory processing disorder impede the quality of auditory perception, and therefore, expression. Those who are deaf or hard of hearing may be considered to fall into this category.
Psychiatric disorders have been shown to change speech acoustic features, where for instance, fundamental frequency of voice (perceived as pitch) tends to be significantly lower in major depressive disorder than in healthy controls.[21] Therefore, speech is being investigated as a potential biomarker for mental health disorders.
Speech and language disorders can also result from stroke,[22] brain injury,[23] hearing loss,[24] developmental delay,[25] a cleft palate,[26] cerebral palsy,[27] or emotional issues.[28]
Speech-related diseases, disorders, and conditions can be treated by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) or speech therapist. SLPs assess levels of speech needs, make diagnoses based on the assessments, and then treat the diagnoses or address the needs.[29]
Paul Broca identified an approximate region of the brain in 1861 which, when damaged in two of his patients, caused severe deficits in speech production, where his patients were unable to speak beyond a few monosyllabic words. This deficit, known as Broca's or expressive aphasia, is characterized by difficulty in speech production where speech is slow and labored, function words are absent, and syntax is severely impaired, as in telegraphic speech. In expressive aphasia, speech comprehension is generally less affected except in the comprehension of grammatically complex sentences.[31] Wernicke's area is named after Carl Wernicke, who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had had damage to the prefrontal cortex.[32] Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or receptive aphasia, which is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or jargon speech.[31]
Modern research
Modern models of the neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension and production recognize the importance of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, but are not limited to them nor solely to the left hemisphere.[33] Instead, multiple streams are involved in speech production and comprehension. Damage to the left lateral sulcus has been connected with difficulty in processing and producing morphology and syntax, while lexical access and comprehension of irregular forms (e.g. eat-ate) remain unaffected.[34]
Moreover, the circuits involved in human speech comprehension dynamically adapt with learning, for example, by becoming more efficient in terms of processing time when listening to familiar messages such as learned verses.[35]
Some non-human animals can produce sounds or gestures resembling those of a human language.[36] Several species or groups of animals have developed forms of communication which superficially resemble verbal language, however, these usually are not considered a language because they lack one or more of the defining characteristics, e.g. grammar, syntax, recursion, and displacement. Researchers have been successful in teaching some animals to make gestures similar to sign language,[37][38] although whether this should be considered a language has been disputed.[39]
^Kelemen, G. (1963). Comparative anatomy and performance of the vocal organ in vertebrates. In R. Busnel (ed.), Acoustic behavior of animals. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 489–521.
^Catford, J.C.; Esling, J.H. (2006). "Articulatory Phonetics". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. pp. 425–42.
^Fromkin, Victoria (1973). "Introduction". Speech Errors as Linguistic Evidence. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 11–46.
^Nicoladis, Elena; Paradis, Johanne (2012). "Acquiring Regular and Irregular Past Tense Morphemes in English and French: Evidence From Bilingual Children". Language Learning. 62 (1): 170–97. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00628.x.
^Ullman, Michael T.; et al. (2005). "Neural correlates of lexicon and grammar: Evidence from the production,reading, and judgement of inflection in aphasia". Brain and Language. 93 (2): 185–238. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2004.10.001. PMID15781306. S2CID14991615.
^Kennison, Shelia (2013). Introduction to Language Development. Los Angeles: Sage.
^Kishon-Rabin, Liat; Rotshtein, Shira; Taitelbaum, Riki (2002). "Underlying Mechanism for Categorical Perception: Tone-Onset Time and Voice-Onset Time Evidence of Hebrew Voicing". Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology. 13 (2): 117–34. doi:10.1515/jbcpp.2002.13.2.117. PMID16411426. S2CID9986779.
^Richards, Emma (June 2012). "Communication and swallowing problems after stroke". Nursing and Residential Care. 14 (6): 282–286. doi:10.12968/nrec.2012.14.6.282.
^Zasler, Nathan D.; Katz, Douglas I.; Zafonte, Ross D.; Arciniegas, David B.; Bullock, M. Ross; Kreutzer, Jeffrey S., eds. (2013). Brain injury medicine principles and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Demos Medical. pp. 1086–1104, 1111–1117. ISBN9781617050572.
^Bauman-Waengler, Jacqueline (2011). Articulatory and phonological impairments: a clinical focus (4th ed., International ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. pp. 378–385. ISBN9780132719957.
^Cross, Melanie (2011). Children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and communication problems: there is always a reason (2nd ed.). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
^Kertesz, A. (2005). "Wernicke–Geschwind Model". In L. Nadel, Encyclopedia of cognitive science. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
^ abHillis, A.E., & Caramazza, A. (2005). "Aphasia". In L. Nadel, Encyclopedia of cognitive science. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
^Wernicke K. (1995). "The aphasia symptom-complex: A psychological study on an anatomical basis (1875)". In Paul Eling (ed.). Reader in the History of Aphasia: From sasi(Franz Gall to). Vol. 4. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub Co. pp. 69–89. ISBN978-90-272-1893-3.
^Tyler, Lorraine K.; Marslen-Wilson, William (2009). "Fronto-temporal brain systems supporting spoken language comprehension". In Moore, Brian C.J.; Tyler, Lorraine K.; Marslen-Wilson, William D. (eds.). The Perception of Speech: from sound to meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 193–217. ISBN978-0-19-956131-5.
^Hillix, William A.; Rumbaugh, Duane M. (2004), "Washoe, the First Signing Chimpanzee", Animal Bodies, Human Minds: Ape, Dolphin, and Parrot Language Skills, Springer US, pp. 69–85, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4512-2_5, ISBN978-1-4419-3400-0
TurcoTürkçeParlato in Turchia Cipro Cipro del Nord Grecia Romania Bulgaria Azerbaigian Georgia Macedonia del Nord Kosovo Siria LocutoriTotale88,1 milioni (Ethnologue, 2022) Classifica13 (2021) Altre informazioniScritturaalfabeto latino, alfabeto turco TipoSOV agglutinante - flessiva TassonomiaFilogenesiLingue turche Lingue turche occidentali Lingue oghuz (sudovest) Turco Statuto ufficialeUfficiale in TÜRKS…
ساندي برونديلو معلومات شخصية الميلاد 20 أغسطس 1968 (العمر 55 سنة)كوينزلاند، أستراليا الطول 170 سنتيمتر مركز اللعب مدافع مسدد الهدف الجنسية أستراليا الوزن 62 كيلوغرام الحياة العملية الدوري الاتحاد الوطني لكرة السلة النسائية بداية الاحتراف 1992 - 2004 المهنة لاعبة كرة …
This article is about the football club in North Macedonia. For the football club from Bulgaria, see OFC Belasitsa Petrich. Football clubФК Беласица FK BelasicaFull nameFudbalski klub Belasica Strumica / Фудбалски клуб Беласица СтрумицаNickname(s)Кенгури (Kangaroos)Short nameBelasica, BELFounded22 April 1922; 102 years ago (1922-04-22)GroundBlagoj Istatov StadiumCapacity9,200ChairmanSlavcho Vaskov-PindaManagerShefki ArifovskiLeagueM…
Facility where plants are propagated and grown to usable size For other uses of Nursery, see Nursery (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Plant nursery – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Plants in a nursery A nur…
Melito di Porto Salvocomune Melito di Porto Salvo – Veduta LocalizzazioneStato Italia Regione Calabria Città metropolitana Reggio Calabria AmministrazioneSindacoSalvatore Orlando (lista civica) dal 5-10-2021 TerritorioCoordinate37°55′N 15°47′E / 37.916667°N 15.783333°E37.916667; 15.783333 (Melito di Porto Salvo)Coordinate: 37°55′N 15°47′E / 37.916667°N 15.783333°E37.916667; 15.783333 (Melito di Porto Salvo) Altitud…
Meri YandiLahirMeri Yandi19 Mei 1986 (umur 37)Palembang, IndonesiaNama lainAndit ArmadaPekerjaanMusisiTahun aktif2005 - sekarang Meri Yandi atau dikenal sebagai Andit Armada (lahir 19 Mei 1986) merupakan pemain drum dari grup musik Armada. Pada tahun 2005, bersama Rizal, Radha, Endra dan Mai, ia ikut mendirikan grup Kertas sebelum akhirnya berganti nama menjadi Armada pada tahun 2007. Diskografi Kekasih yang tak Dianggap (2006) (bersama Kertas) Balas Dendam (2008) (bersama Armada)…
Запрос «Пугачёва» перенаправляется сюда; см. также другие значения. Алла Пугачёва На фестивале «Славянский базар в Витебске», 2016 год Основная информация Полное имя Алла Борисовна Пугачёва Дата рождения 15 апреля 1949(1949-04-15) (75 лет) Место рождения Москва, СССР[1] …
Taoist text by Ge Hong Part of a series onTaoism Outline History Concepts Daoxue Dao De Wuji Taiji Yin-Yang Bagua Wu xing (Five Phases) Bianhua Fan (reversal) Wu-wei (non-action) Ziran Xian (immortal) Zhenren Zhenxing (true name) Three Treasures Jing Qi Shen Hun and po Practices Three Treasures (virtues) Five Precepts Ten Precepts Meditation Neidan Waidan Bugang Chu Diet (Bigu) Sexual practices Art Talismans Priesthood Texts I Ching Daodejing Zhuangzi Huainanzi Taipingjing Xiang'er Liezi Sanhuan…
Maria Rita Mariano alla Virada Cultural 2009 Maria Rita Costa Camargo Mariano, conosciuta semplicemente come Maria Rita (San Paolo, 9 settembre 1977), è una cantante e compositrice brasiliana. È la figlia della cantante Elis Regina e del compositore César Camargo Mariano. Ha cominciato la sua carriera portandosi sempre addosso l'ombra della famosissima, compianta madre. «Ho sempre avuto coscienza di essere l'unica figlia di una grande cantante». Indice 1 Biografia 2 Discografia 3 Premi e no…
Santo VitusSanto Vitus, dari buku Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493Lahirsekitar 290SisiliaMeninggalsekitar 303Lucania, saat ini Basilikata, ItaliaDihormati diGereja Katolik RomaGereja Ortodoks TimurPesta15 Juni Santo Vitus (meninggal tahun 304) adalah seorang santo yang dihormati sebagai santo pelindung orang-orang yang terkena penyakit epilepsi.[1] Hal itu disebabkan Vitus pernah menyembuhkan orang yang terkena penyakit tersebut.[1] Selain itu, Vitus juga dikenal sebagai seorang martir …
Portuguese materials conglomerate For the water company in Bolivia, see Semapa (Bolivia). Semapa - Sociedade de Investimento e Gestão, SGPS, S.A.Company typePublic (Sociedade Anónima)Traded asEuronext Lisbon: SEMISINPTSEM0AM0004IndustryConglomerateFounded1991HeadquartersLisbon, PortugalKey peoplePedro Queiroz Pereira (Chairman and CEO)Revenue€1.381 billion (2010)[1]Operating income€282.8 million (2010)[1]Net income€126.7 million (2010)[1]Total assets€3.570 …
American suffrage activist Sue M. Wilson BrownBornSue M. Wilson(1877-09-08)September 8, 1877Staunton, VirginiaDiedJanuary 1, 1941(1941-01-01) (aged 63)Des Moines, IowaNationalityAmericanOccupation(s)Clubwoman, Activist Sue M. Wilson Brown (September 8, 1877 – January 1, 1941) was an African-American activist for women's suffrage. She was inducted into the Iowa Women's Hall of Fame in 1995.[1] Biography Brown was born on September 8, 1877, in Staunton, Virginia,[2] to Jacob…
Bali 2008 redirects here. For other uses, see Bali 2008 (disambiguation). 1st Asian Beach GamesPesta Olahraga Pantai Asia PertamaLogo of the 2008 Asian Beach Games.Host cityBali, IndonesiaMottoInspire the WorldNations41Athletes1,665Events71 in 19 sportsOpening18 OctoberClosing26 OctoberOpened bySusilo Bambang YudhoyonoPresident of IndonesiaAthlete's OathAndi ArdiansyahJudge's OathPergunan TariganTorch lighterAgus SalimTaufik HidayatOka SulaksanaMain venueGaruda Wisnu Kencana Cultural ParkWebsite…
Sebuah bak mandi air panas 5 bangku Bak mandi air panas luar ruangan Bak mandi air panas adalah sebuah bak mandi besar atau kolam kecil air penuh yang dipakai untuk hidroterapi, relaksasi atau kesenangan. Beberapa bak mandi air panas memiliki pengatur gerak air untuk tujuan pijat. Bak mandi air panas terkadang juga dikenal sebagai spa atau nama dagang Jacuzzi. Kontras dengan bak mandi biasa, bak mandi air panas dirancang untuk dipakai oleh lebih dari satu orang dalam sekali pakai, dengan banyak …
Organic architectural style Future Systems' blobitecture design for the 2003 Selfridges Building department store was intended to evoke the female silhouette and a famous chainmail dress designed by Paco Rabanne in the 1960s. Blobitecture (from blob architecture), blobism and blobismus are terms for a movement in architecture in which buildings have an organic, amoeba-shaped building form.[1] Though the term blob architecture was already in vogue in the mid-1990s, the word blobitecture f…
American television series This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Falcon Crest – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Falcon CrestMain title card (season 9)GenreSoap operaCreated byEarl Hamner Jr.StarringJane WymanRobert FoxworthSusan Sull…
This article is about the incorporated city of Grosse Pointe Shores. For the adjacent area, see Grosse Pointe. City in Michigan, United StatesGrosse Pointe Shores, MichiganCityVillage of Grosse Pointe ShoresGrosse Pointe Shores City Hall SealLocation within Macomb County (top) and Wayne County (bottom)Grosse Pointe ShoresShow map of MichiganGrosse Pointe ShoresShow map of the United StatesCoordinates: 42°26′19″N 82°52′15″W / 42.43861°N 82.87083°W / 42.43861; -…