A kurgan is a type of tumulus constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons, and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, kurgans spread into much of Central Asia and Eastern, Southeast, Western, and Northern Europe during the third millennium BC.[1]
According to the Etymological dictionary of the Ukrainian language the word "kurhan" is borrowed directly from the "Polovtsian" language (Kipchak, part of the Turkic languages), and means: fortress, embankment, high grave.[4] The word has two possible etymologies, either from the Old Turkic root qori- "to close, to block, to guard, to protect", or qur- "to build, to erect, furnish, or stur". According to Vasily Radlov it may be a cognate to qorγan, meaning "fortification, fortress, or a castle".[5]
The Russian noun, already attested in Old East Slavic, comes from an unidentified Turkic language.[6] Kurgans are mounds of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Popularised by its use in Soviet archaeology, the word is now widely used for tumuli in the context of Eastern European and Central Asian archaeology.[citation needed]
Origins and spread
Some sceptre graves could have been covered with a tumulus, placing the first kurgans as early as the fifth millennium BC in eastern Europe. However, this hypothesis is not accepted unanimously.[7]
Kurgans were used in Ukrainian and Russian steppes, their use spreading with migration into southern, central, and northern Europe in the third millennium BC.[8][9]
Later, Kurgan barrows became characteristic of Bronze Age peoples, and have been found from Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria (Thracians, Getae, etc.), and Romania (Getae, Dacians), the Caucasus, Russia, to Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and the Altay Mountains.[citation needed]
The Kurgan hypothesis is that Proto-Indo-Europeans were the bearers of the Kurgan culture of the Black Sea and the Caucasus and west of the Urals. Introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, it combines kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the peoples who spoke the Proto-Indo-European language. She tentatively named the culture "Kurgan" after its distinctive burial mounds and traced its diffusion into Europe. The hypothesis has had a significant effect upon Indo-European studies.
Scholars who follow Gimbutas identify a "Kurgan culture" as reflecting an early Proto-Indo-European ethnicity that existed in the steppes and in southeastern Europe from the fifth millennium to the third millennium BC. In Kurgan cultures, most burials were in kurgans, either clan or individual. Most prominent leaders were buried in individual kurgans, now called "royal kurgans". These individual kurgans have attracted the most attention and publicity because they were more elaborate than clan kurgans and contained grave goods.
Scytho-Siberian monuments
The monuments of these cultures coincide with the Scytho-Siberian world (Saka) monuments. Scytho-Siberian monuments have common features and sometimes, common genetic roots.[10] Also associated with these spectacular burial mounds are the Pazyryk, an ancient people who lived in the Altai Mountains that lay in Siberian Russia on the Ukok Plateau, near the borders with China, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.[11] The archaeological site on the Ukok Plateau associated with the Pazyryk culture is included in the Golden Mountains of AltaiUNESCO World Heritage Site.[12]
Scytho-Siberian classification includes monuments from the eighth to the third century BC. This period is called the Early or Ancient Nomads epoch. "Hunnic" monuments date from the third century BC to the sixth century AD, and Turkic ones from the sixth century AD to the thirteenth century AD, leading up to the Mongolian epoch.[citation needed]
Burial mounds are complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, elite individuals were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. The structures of the earlier Neolithic period from the fourth to the third millenniums BC, and Bronze Age until the first millennium BC, display continuity of the archaic forming methods. They were inspired by common ritual-mythological concepts.
Common components
In all periods, the development of the kurgan structure tradition in the various ethnocultural zones is revealed by common components or typical features in the construction of the monuments. They include:
funeral chambers
tombs
surface and underground constructions of different configurations
a mound of earth or stone, with or without an entrance
the presence of an entryway into the chamber, into the tomb, into the fence, or into the kurgan
the location of a sacrificial site on the embankments, inside the mound, inside the moat, inside the embankments, and in their links, entryways, and around the kurgan
a fire pit in the chamber
a wooden roof over or under the kurgan, at the top of the kurgan, or around the kurgan
the location of stone statues, columns, poles, and other objects
bypass passages inside the kurgan, inside tombs, or around the kurgan
Depending on the combination of these elements, each historical and cultural nomadic zone has certain architectural distinctions.
Pre-Scytho-Sibirian kurgans (Bronze Age)
In the Bronze Age, kurgans were built with stone reinforcements. Some of them are believed to be Scythian burials with built-up soil and embankments reinforced with stone (Olhovsky, 1991).
Pre-Scytho-Sibirian kurgans were surface kurgans. Wooden or stone tombs were constructed on the surface or underground and then covered with a kurgan. The kurgan tombs of Bronze culture across Europe and Asia were similar in construction to the methods of house construction in the culture.[13] Kurgan Ak-su - Aüly (twelfth–eleventh centuries BC) with a tomb covered by a pyramidal timber roof under a kurgan has space surrounded by double walls serving as a bypass corridor. This design has analogies with Begazy, Sanguyr, Begasar, and Dandybay kurgans.[13] These building traditions survived into the early Middle Ages, to the eighth–tenth centuries AD.
The Bronze Pre-Scytho-Sibirian culture developed in close similarity with the cultures of Yenisei, Altai, Kazakhstan, southern, and southeast Amur regions.
Some kurgans had facing or tiling. One tomb in Ukraine has 29 large limestone slabs set on end in a circle underground. They were decorated with carved geometrical ornamentation of rhombuses, triangles, crosses, and on one slab, figures of people. Another example has an earthen kurgan under a wooden cone of thick logs topped by an ornamented cornice up to 2 m in height.
Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Early Iron Age)
The Scytho-Siberian kurgans in the Early Iron Age have grandiose mounds throughout the Eurasian continent.[15]
Regional and temporal gender ratios
In the eastern Manych steppes and Kuban–Azov steppes during the Yamna culture,[16] a near-equal ratio of female-to-male graves was found among kurgans.
In the lower and middle Volga river region during the Yamna and Poltavka cultures, females were buried in about 20% of graves and two thousand years later, women dressed as warriors were buried in the same region.[16] David Anthony notes, "About 20% of Scythian – Sarmatian 'warrior graves' on the lower Don and lower Volga contained females dressed for battle... a phenomenon that probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons."[16]
In Ukraine, the ratio was intermediate between the other two regions, therefore approximately 35% were women.[16]
Archaeological remains
The most obvious archeological remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mounds, some more than 20 m high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watersheds. From them much has been learnt about Scythian life and art.[17]
Excavated kurgans
Some excavated kurgans include:
The Ipatovo kurgan revealed a long sequence of burials from the Maykop culture c. 4000 BC down to the burial of an elite woman of the third century BC, excavated 1998–99.
Kurgan 4 at Kutuluk near Samara, Russia, dated to c. 2400 BC, contains the skeleton of a man, estimated to have been 35 to 40 years old and about 152 cm tall.[18] Resting on the skeleton's bent left elbow was a copper object 65 cm long with a blade of a diamond-shaped cross-section and sharp edges, but no point, and a handle, originally probably wrapped in leather. No similar object is known from Bronze Age Eurasian steppe cultures.
The Novovelichkovskaya kurgan of c. 2000 BC on the Ponura River, Krasnodar region, southern Russia, contains the remains of 11 people, including an embracing couple, buried with bronze tools, stone carvings, jewelry, and ceramic vessels decorated with red ocher. The tomb is associated with the Novotitorovka culture nomads.
The Kostromskaya kurgan of the seventh century BC produced a famous Scythian gold stag (now at Hermitage Museum), next to the iron shield it decorated.[19] Apart from the principal male body with his accoutrements, the burial included thirteen humans with no adornment above him, and around the edges of the burial twenty-two horses were buried in pairs.[20] It was excavated by N. I. Veselovski in 1897.[21]
The Issyk kurgan, in southern Kazakhstan, contains a skeleton, possibly female, c. fourth century BC, with an inscribed silver cup, gold ornaments, Scythian animal art objects, and headdress reminiscent of Kazakh bridal hats; was discovered in 1969.
Kurgan 11 of the Berel cemetery, in the Bukhtarma River valley of Kazakhstan, contains a tomb of c. 300 BC, with a dozen sacrificed horses preserved with their skin, hair, harnesses, and saddles intact, buried side by side on a bed of birch bark next to a funeral chamber containing the pillaged burial of two Scythian nobles; excavated in 1998.
The Tovsta Mohyla Kurgan belongs to the fourth century BC and was excavated in 1971 by the Ukrainian archaeologist Boris M. Mozolevsky. It contained the famous Golden Pectoral from Tovsta Mohyla that is now in exhibition in the Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, which is located inside the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra, in Kyiv. This pectoral is the most famous artwork connected with the Scythians. A beautiful sword scabbard was found in the antechamber of the burial, which was never robbed (differently from the main chamber). A second lateral burial was found intact in the same Kurgan. It belonged to a woman and her two-year old daughter. She was found covered with gold, including a golden diadem and other fine golden jewels. The woman's burial is interpreted as likely related to burial at the center of the Kurgan. The Tovsta Mohyla Kurgan, 60 m in diameter before the excavation, is located in present-day southern Ukraine near the city of Pokrov in the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.
The Ryzhanivka kurgan, a 10-metre-high (33 ft) kurgan 125 km south of Kyiv, Ukraine, containing the tomb of a Scythian chieftain, third century BC, was excavated in 1996.
Mounds at Jawczyce were described by Bishop Nankerus in 1322. Kurgan mounds dated to the Neolithic or Bronze Age included a burial of an elderly person, perhaps male. Some weapons and pottery fragments were also found in the tomb.[28]
Near Sieradz a tomb dated to the Trzciniec culture of c. 1500 BC contains a man and woman buried together.
A kurgan burial site at Łubna-Jakusy and a kurgan cremation near Guciów are examples of Trzciniec culture of c. 1500 BC.
The Krakus Mound is located in Kraków. Legend says it is the burial place of Krakus, founder of the city.
Wanda Mound, the burial place of the daughter of Krakus, is located in Kraków.
Piłakno near Mrągowo, excavated in 1988, is an example of west Baltic kurhan culture.[29]
In Bełchatow there is a pagan temple built upon a kurgan. Dating of this structure awaited results of carbon 14 tests in 2001.[30]
The mound called Kopiec Tatarski at Przemyśl is triangular in shape, 10 meters in length, and pointing east. In 1869, T. Żebrawski found bones and ancient coins. In 1958, A. Kunysz found skulls and bones and medieval ceramics. a structure called Templum S. Leonardi was constructed around 1534 AD on top of the mound; it was destroyed in World War II.
Kopiec Esterki was erected in the fourteenth century by Casimir III of Poland for his deceased wife.
Kopiec Wyzwolenia (Mound of Liberation) commemorates the 250th anniversary of the passage of the Polish Hussars through the city of Piekary Śląskie under John III Sobieski. It was completed in 1937.[31]
^Akishev K.A., Kushaev G.A., Ancient culture of Sakas and Usuns in the valley of river Ili, Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences publication, 1963, pp. 121–36
^John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, N.G.L. Hammond. It The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. (1992), p. 550 [ISBN missing]
Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. ISBN0333371852
Govedarica, Blagoje (2016), Conflict or Coexistence: Steppe and Agricultural Societies in the Early Copper Age of the Northwest Black Sea Area
Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000), Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology, Springer
Mallory, J.P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997), Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Taylor & Francis
Piotrovsky, Boris, et al. "Excavations and Discoveries in Scythian Lands", in From the Lands of the Scythians: Ancient Treasures from the Museums of the U.S.S.R., 3000 B.C.–100 B.C. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 32, no. 5 (1974), available online as a series of PDFs (bottom of the page).
Further reading
"In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth" by J. P. Mallory, ISBN0-500-27616-1
"The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles Form 1952 to 1993" von Marija Gimbutas u.a., ISBN0-941694-56-9
D. Ya. Telegin et al., Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona. Kiev: Shlyakh, 2001. Reviewed by J.P. Mallory, JIES vol. 32, 3/4, p. 363–366.
"Reconstruction Of The Genofond Peculiarities Of The Ancient Pazyryk Population (1st-2nd Millennium BC) From Gorny Altai According To The mtDNA Structure" Voevoda M.I., Sitnikova V.V., Romashchenko A.G., Chikisheva T.A., Polosmak N.V., Molodin V. I http://www.bionet.nsc.ru/bgrs/thesis/99/.
O. Ismagulov 'Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)', Science, Alma-Ata, 1970
Edy Prakoso Direktur Operasi dan Latihan BASARNAS Informasi pribadiLahir4 Juni 1968 (umur 55)IndonesiaKebangsaanIndonesiaAlma materAkademi Angkatan Laut (1990)Karier militerPihak IndonesiaDinas/cabang TNI Angkatan LautMasa dinas1990—sekarangPangkat Brigadir Jenderal TNI (Mar)NRP9883/PSatuanKorps MarinirSunting kotak info • L • B Brigadir Jenderal TNI (Mar) Edy Prakoso, S.E., M.M. (lahir 4 Juni 1968) adalah seorang perwira tinggi TNI-AL yang sejak 31 Januari 2023 me…
Mario López nel 2023 Mario Michael López Jr. (San Diego, 10 ottobre 1973) è un attore e conduttore televisivo statunitense. È noto soprattutto per aver interpretato, dal 1989 al 1993, il ruolo di A.C. Slater nella serie televisiva Bayside School. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Carriera 2.1 Controversie 2.2 Vita privata 3 Filmografia 3.1 Attore 3.2 Doppiatore 3.3 Produttore 3.3.1 Co-produttore 3.3.2 Produttore esecutivo 4 Doppiatori Italiani 5 Note 6 Bibliografia 7 Altri progetti 8 Collegamenti esterni…
У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Северно-Центральный регион. областьСеверо-Центральнаяфр. Centre-Nord 13°15′ с. ш. 1°00′ з. д.HGЯO Страна Буркина-Фасо Включает 3 провинции Адм. центр Кая губернатор Фатимата Легма История и география Площадь 19 508 км² (6-е…
Soyuz TMA-09M adalah sebuah misi Soyuz Rusia ke Stasiun Antariksa Internasional. Mengangkut tiga anggota awak Ekspedisi 36 ke stasiun ruang angkasa. Soyuz tetap merapat ke stasiun ruang angkasa selama Ekspedisi 36 dan 37 untuk melayani sebagai kendaraan escape darurat. Pesawat ruang angkasa mendarat di 11 November 2013, membawa tiga kosmonaut. Awak Soyuz TMA-09m terdiri dari Fyodor Yurchikhin dari Roskosmos, Karen Nyberg dari NASA dan Luca Parmitano dari European Space Agency. Referensi Peat, Ch…
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang jalur kereta api di Inggris yang sedang dibangun. Untuk layanan sebelumnya yang dibuka tahun 2015, lihat TfL Rail. Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Crossrail (disambiguasi). CrossrailTerowongan Crossrail sedang dibangunIkhtisarNama lainElizabeth Line (sejak Desember 2018)Jenis Kereta komuter Angkutan cepat[1] SistemNational RailStatusSedang dibangunLokasiLondon Raya; Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, EssexTerminusBarat: Bandar Udara Heathrow London / (Rawas)Timur: …
محمد بركات معلومات شخصية الميلاد 22 يونيو 1984 [1] خان يونس الوفاة 11 مارس 2024 (39 سنة) [2][3] خان يونس[2][3][4] سبب الوفاة ضربة جوية[5] قتله القوات الجوية الإسرائيلية[5] مركز اللعب مهاجم الجنسية دولة فلسطين المسيرة الاحترافية…
1969–2007 British military operation in Northern Ireland during the Troubles Operation BannerPart of the Troubles and the dissident Irish republican campaignTwo British Army soldiers at a checkpoint near Newry, Northern Ireland, 1988Date14 August 1969 – 31 July 2007(37 years, 11 months, 2 weeks and 3 days)LocationNorthern IrelandResult Stalemate[1][2] Paramilitary ceasefires Demilitarisation Good Friday AgreementBelligerents British Armed Forces Royal Ulst…
Upper house of the Rhode Island General Assembly This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: Rhode Island Senate – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Rhode Island SenateSeal of the Rhode Island SenateTypeTypeUpper house of the Rhode Island General Assembly Term limitsNoneHistoryNew se…
Sulawesi Selatan IIDaerah pemilihanuntuk Dewan Perwakilan RakyatRepublik IndonesiaWilayah Daftar Kabupaten : Barru Bulukumba Bone Maros Pangkajene dan Kepulauan Sinjai Soppeng Wajo Kota : Parepare ProvinsiSulawesi SelatanPopulasi3.263.466 (2023)[1]Elektorat2.375.339 (2024)[2]Daerah pemilihan saat iniDibentuk2004Kursi12 (2004—09)9 (2009—sekarang)Anggota Andi Muawiyah Ramly (PKB) Andi Iwan Darmawan Aras (Gerindra) Samsu Niang (PDI-P) Andi Rio I…
Government of Lebanon since 2021 Third Cabinet of Najib MikatiCabinet of LebanonNajib MikatiDate formed10 September 2021 (2021-09-10)People and organisationsPresidentMichel AounHead of governmentNajib MikatiDeputy head of governmentSaadeh Al ShamiNo. of ministers24Ministers removedGeorge Kurdahi resignedTotal no. of members24HistoryPredecessorCabinet of Hassan DiabOn 10 September 2021, a new government headed by Najib Mikati was formed in Lebanon, 13 months after the resignation o…
يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (ديسمبر 2018) قرية آل حاتم مران - قرية - تقسيم إداري البلد اليمن المحافظة محافظة أبين المديرية مديرية مودي…
v · mDélégation du Dakota du Nord au Congrès des États-Unis Sénateurs John Hoeven (R) Kevin Cramer (R) Représentant Kelly Armstrong (R) Délégations par État Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas Californie Caroline du Nord Caroline du Sud Colorado Connecticut Dakota du Nord Dakota du Sud Delaware Floride Géorgie Hawaï Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiane Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jers…
13-я гвардейская истребительная авиационнаяПолтавско-Александрийская Краснознамённая ордена Кутузова дивизия Вооружённые силы ВС СССР Вид вооружённых сил ВВС Род войск (сил) истребительная авиация Почётные наименования «Полтавская» «Александрийская» Формирование 02.07.…
В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с такой фамилией, см. Баянов. Санджи Баянов Выпускник Астраханской гимназии, 1906 Дата рождения 1884(1884) Дата смерти 1945(1945) Место смерти Баутцен[источник не указан 1159 дней] Гражданство Российская империя Род деятельности …
Battaglia della Zelandaparte della seconda guerra mondialeData10 - 18 maggio 1940 LuogoProvincia della Zelanda (Paesi Bassi) EsitoVittoria tedesca Schieramenti Paesi Bassi Francia Germania Comandanti Henri Winkelman Hendrik Jan van der Stad Henri GiraudPaul HausserOskar von dem Hagen Effettivi10 000 olandesi15 000 francesi7 000 uomini PerditeOlandesi:38 morti~115 feritiI restanti sono fuggiti o sono stati fatti prigionieriFrancesi:229 morti~700 feriti3 000 prig…
Tomasz KupiszKupisz con il Jagiellonia nel 2011Nazionalità Polonia Altezza180 cm Peso70 kg Calcio RuoloCentrocampista, ala Squadra Jagiellonia CarrieraGiovanili 2003-2004 Junior Radom2004-2006 KS Piaseczno2006 Wigan2006-2010 Wigan Squadre di club1 2006 Wigan0 (0)2006→ Oldham Athletic3 (0)2006-2010 Wigan0 (0)2010-2013 Jagiellonia95 (11)2013-2015 Chievo1 (0)2015→ Cittadella19 (4)2015-2016→ Brescia40 (6)2016-2017→ Novara27 (1)…