Fire worship

Indo-Parthian stone palette, illustrating a fire ritual (left); Agni the Hindu deity of fire, with a very prominent place among Rigvedic deities (right).

Worship or deification of fire (also pyrodulia, pyrolatry or pyrolatria), or fire rituals, religious rituals centred on a fire, are known from various religions. Fire has been an important part of human culture since the Lower Paleolithic. Religious or animist notions connected to fire are assumed to reach back to such early prehuman times.

There may be a fire god, as a personification of fires in general, and he may be believed to reside in some sense in any particular ritual fire, or the fire may represent worship of another deity.

Indo-European religions

In Indo-European languages, there were two concepts regarding fire: that of an animate type called *h₁n̥gʷnis (cf. Sanskrit agni, Albanian: enji,[1] English ignite from Latin ignis, Polish ogień and Russian ogon), and an inanimate type *péh₂wr̥ (cf. English fire, Greek pyr, Sanskrit pu).[2][3] A similar distinction existed for water.[4]

Fire rituals that are commonly found among Indo-European peoples have been firstly attested by the Vedas, with hymns dedicated to the fire god Agni.[5]

Albanian

Further information: Enji (deity) and Vatër
Albanian traditional tattoo patterns: 19th century (top), early 20th century (bottom). They are symbols of the Sun (Dielli) and the Moon (Hëna); the cross (also swastika in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym Enji.[6]

In Albanian tradition the fire cult and ritual practices have played a prominent role.[7] Enji (Albanian: [ɛɲi]) is the name of the fire god, evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – e enjte – the Albanian word for Thursday.[8] The Fire – Zjarri – is deified in Albanian tradition as releaser of light and heat with the power to ward off darkness and evil, affect cosmic phenomena and give strength to the Sun (Dielli, who is worshiped as the god of light, sky and weather, giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye), sustain the continuity between life and afterlife and between the generations. The divine power of Fire is used for the hearth and the rituals, including calendar fires, sacrificial offerings, divination, purification, and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events.[9] Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun (Dielli), the cult of the hearth (vatër) and the ancestor, and the cult of fertility in agriculture and animal husbandry.[10] The practices associated with ritual fires among Albanians have been historically fought by the Christian clergy, without success.[11] The fire god Enji was presumably worshiped by the Illyrians in antiquity[12] and he may have been the most prominent god of the Albanian pantheon in Roman times by interpreting Jupiter, when week-day names were formed in the Albanian language.[13] The belief in a prominent fire and wind god, who was referred to as I Verbti ("the blind one"), and who was often regarded more powerful than the Christian God, survived in northern Albania until recent times.[14] Under Christianization the god of fire was demonized and considered a false god, and it was spread about that anyone who invoked him would be blinded by fire.[15] The purifying power of fire underlies the Albanian folk belief according to which the fire god is the enemy of uncleanliness and the opponent of filth.[16]

Albanian warrior dance in circle around fire (zjarri), drawing from the book Childe Harold's Pilgrimage written by Lord Byron in the early 19th century. Practiced for several hours with very short intervals, the dance gets new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a battle cry invoking war drums, and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance.[17] The ritual purifying fire is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain protection and energizing from its supernatural power.[18]

In Albanian tradition Fire is deeply respected. To spit into it is taboo.[19] Albanian solemn oaths are taken "by fire",[20] and the worst curse formulas are cast for the extinguishing of the individual's, family's and clan's fire.[21] The lineage is identified with an original fire, and the members of a same tribe/clan are "from the same fire". Zjarri i Vatrës ("the Fire of the Hearth") is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and the sustainer of the continuity between the world of the living and that of the dead and between the generations, ensuring the survival of the lineage (fis or farë).[22] The absence of fire in a house is traditionally considered a great curse.[21] Protectors of the hearth are Gjarpri i Vatrës ("the Serpent of the Hearth"), a household benign serpent,[23] and Nëna e Vatrës ("the Mother of the Hearth").[24][25] Zjarret e Vitit ("Ritual Calendar Fires") are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life.[26] The ritual collective fires (based on the house, kinship, or neighborhood) or bonfires in yards (especially on high places) lit before sunrise to celebrate the main traditional Albanian festivities such as Dita e Verës (spring equinox), Shëngjergji, the winter festivals (winter solstice), or mountain pilgrimages, often accompanied by animal sacrifices, are related to the cult of the Sun, and in particular they are practiced with the function to give strength to the Sun and to ward off evil according to the old beliefs.[27] Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, or Zjarri i Keq – traditionally kindled with rudimentary fire making tools and techniques – is the ritual purifying Fire used for the cleansing, protection, healing, and energizing of livestock and humans.[28] Albanian folk beliefs regard the lightning as Zjarri i Qiellit ("the Fire of the Sky") and consider it as the "weapon of the deity".[29] During big storms with torrential rains, lightning and hail, which often cause great damage to agriculture, livestock, and to the rural economy in general, Albanians traditionally bring outdoors Fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects, seeking assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire, in order to turn the storm away and to avert the harms it can cause to the community.[30]

Baltic

The Holy Fire is referred to as Ugnis szwenta in Lithuanian, and the 'Mother of Fire' is referred to as Uguns māte in Latvian.[31]

Fire is very often mentioned by chroniclers, when they were describing Lithuanian rituals. The Lithuanian king Algirdas was even addressed as a "fire worshiper King of Lithuania" (τῷ πυρσολάτρῃ ῥηγὶ τῶν Λιτβῶν) in the documents of a patriarch Nilus of Constantinople.[32]

Celtic

Celtic mythology had Belenus, whose name, "shining one", associated him with fire.[citation needed]

Graeco-Roman

Fire worship in Graeco-Roman tradition had two separate forms: fire of the hearth and fire of the forge. Hearth worship was maintained in Rome by the Vestal Virgins, who served the goddess Vesta, protector of the home, who had a sacred flame as the symbol of her presence in the city (cf. Sacred fire of Vesta). The Greek equivalent of the goddess was Hestia, whose worship took place more commonly within the household. The fire of the forge was associated with the Greek god Hephaestus and the Roman equivalent Vulcan. These two seem to have served both as craft-guild patrons and as protectors against accidental fires in cities. Also associated with fire is the titanic god Prometheus, who stole fire for humans from the gods. Most forms of worship in Graeco-Roman religion involved either cooking or burning completely an animal on a fire made on an altar in front of a temple (see hecatomb).[citation needed]

Hinduism

In the Vedic tradition of Hinduism, fire is a central element in a yajna ceremony, with Agni, "fire", playing the role as mediator between the worshipper and the other gods. Related concepts are the Agnihotra ritual, the invocation of the healing properties of fire; the Agnicayana ritual, which is the building of a fire altar to Agni; and Agnistoma, which is one of the seven Somayajnas. In the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism, Agni is considered the tongue of Vishnu, hence rendering all sacrifices offered to any given deity ultimately a sacrifice to Vishnu.[33]

Hindu yajna fire ritual, 2013

In modern Hinduism, Yajna is the general terms for the many types of rituals conducted before a fire, with homa the term for relatively small fire pujas conducted in a domestic setting, or as part of a wedding ceremony (a vivaha homa). The fire is very carefully constructed and tended by a specialist Brahmin pujari, with much reciting of appropriate passages from sacred texts.

Indo-Iranian

Archaeologically, evidence for Indo-Iranian fire worship and the rite of cremation is found at the transition from the Sintashta-Petrovka to the Andronovo culture around 1500 BC.[34] Fire worship was prevalent in Vedic, with Agni the fire god, and the ancient Iranian religion. Whereas cremation became ubiquitous in Hinduism, it was prohibited in Zoroastrianism.[35] Evidence of fire worship has also been found at the Indus Valley sites of Kalibangan and Lothal.[36]

Zoroastrianism

In Zoroastrianism, fire is considered to be an agent of purity and as a symbol of righteousness and truth. In the present day this is explained to be because fire burns ever-upward and cannot itself be polluted. Sadeh and Chaharshanbe Suri are both fire-related festivals celebrated throughout Greater Iran and date back to when Zoroastrianism was still the predominant religion of the region. Zoroastrianism, however, is sometimes mischaracterised as a fire-worshipping religion, whereas it is a monotheistic faith with Ahura Mazda as its central figure and a dualistic cosmology of good and evil. Fire simply exemplifies a medium for spiritual wisdom and purity, but is not worshipped.

Slavic

In Slavic paganism, Svarog, meaning "bright and clear", was the spirit of fire. The best known and dramatic among numerous Slavic pagan fire rituals is the jumping over the bonfire on the Kupala Night.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

In the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh is associated with fire more than any other element or image, and the Presence of Yahweh is conceptualized as a devouring fire, especially but not exclusively in the Book of Exodus, appearing as fire on top of Mount Sinai, inside the Ark of the Covenant, as the Burning bush and the Pillar of fire that guides the Israelites, and in extensive poetic imagery.[37] Offerings to Yahweh in Jewish ritual recorded in the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud are done by fire.[38]

Christianity

The Holy Fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem has been consecutively documented since 1106 AD.[39]

Fire is often used as symbol or sign of God's presence in Christianity and, since it is held to be a creation along with water and other elements. In the New Testament, Jesus is depicted as the person who will bring fire to the earth.[40] The Holy Spirit is sometimes called the "tongues of flame".[41]

Other religions

Fire continues to be a part of many human religions and cultures. For example, it is used in cremation and bonfires; candles are used in various religious ceremonies; eternal flames are used to remind of notable occasions; and the Olympic Flame burns for the duration of the games.

In Japanese mythology, Kagu-tsuchi is the god of destructive fire.

See also

References

  1. ^ Tagliavini 1963, p. 103; Treimer 1971, p. 32; Orel 1998, p. 88
  2. ^ "Fire". etymonline.com.
  3. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997. p. 202.
  4. ^ Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997. p. 636.
  5. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 250–251.
  6. ^ Treimer 1971, p. 32; Murray-Aynsley 1891, pp. 29, 31.
  7. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327; Qafleshi 2011, p. 49.
  8. ^ Tagliavini 1963, p. 103; Treimer 1971, p. 32; Orel 1998, p. 88; Lurker 2005, p. 57; Koch 2015, p. 113; Sarao 2021, p. 13
  9. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327, 410; Useini 2024, p. 164; Pipa 1993, p. 253; Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179; De Rapper 2012, pp. 14–15; Gjoni 2012, p. 90; Galaty et al. 2013, p. 161.
  10. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327; Qafleshi 2011, p. 49; Poghirc 1987, pp. 178–179; Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  11. ^ Qafleshi 2011, p. 49.
  12. ^ Treimer 1971, p. 32; Lambertz 1973, p. 476; Poghirc 1987, p. 178; Lurker 2005, p. 57.
  13. ^ Treimer 1971, p. 32; Lambertz 1973, p. 476; Poghirc 1987, p. 178; Orel 1998, p. 88; Koch 2015, p. 113.
  14. ^ Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 49, 145–146; Stadtmüller 1954, pp. 216–217; Lambertz 1973, pp. 505–506.
  15. ^ Lurker 2004, p. 197; Stadtmüller 1954, pp. 216–217; Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 49, 145–146.
  16. ^ Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 49, 145–146.
  17. ^ Steiner-Karafili 2010, pp. 143–144.
  18. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 279–281, 327; Useini 2024, p. 164.
  19. ^ Pipa 1993, p. 253.
  20. ^ Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  21. ^ a b Muka 1984, p. 29.
  22. ^ Poghirc 1987, p. 179; Tirta 2004, pp. 176, 410; De Rapper 2012, pp. 14–15; Gjoni 2012, p. 90; Galaty et al. 2013, p. 161.
  23. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 152–156; Elsie 2001, p. 260; Doja 2005, pp. 449–462; Poghirc 1987, p. 179; Doli 2009, pp. 127–128; Stipčević 2009, p. 507.
  24. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 176–181.
  25. ^ Poghirc 1987, p. 179.
  26. ^ Poghirc 1987, p. 179; Tirta 2004, pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327.
  27. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 75, 113, 116, 250; Useini 2024, p. 164.
  28. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 279–281.
  29. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 82, 406.
  30. ^ Tirta 2004, pp. 82, 309; Brahaj 2007, pp. 16–18.
  31. ^ West 2007, p. 269.
  32. ^ Norkus 2017, p. 1966.
  33. ^ Madhulika Sharma (2002). Fire Worship in Ancient India. Jaipur Publication Scheme. ISBN 978-81-86782-57-6.
  34. ^ Diakonoff, Igor M. (1995). "Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins" (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society. 115 (3): 473–477. doi:10.2307/606224. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 606224. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  35. ^ Kreyenbroek, Philip G. (11 January 2013). Living Zoroastrianism: Urban Parsis Speak about their Religion. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-11970-5. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  36. ^ Young, L. M. (1976). [Review of Lothal and the Indus Civilization, by S. R. Rao & M. Wheeler]. Asian Perspectives, 19(2), 308–309. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42927928
  37. ^ "Sefaria: Exodus 13:21 - JPS Tanakh 1985". Sefaria. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
  38. ^ "Sefaria: Leviticus 1:1 - JPS Tanakh 1985". Sefaria. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
  39. ^ "Holy Fire. Holy Fire in Jerusalem is yearly miracle in Church of Holy Sepulchre".
  40. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Luke 12:49-56 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  41. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 3:11 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 8 November 2021.

Bibliography