The Zhouyuan Tongbao (traditional Chinese: 周元通寳; simplified Chinese: 周元通宝; pinyin: zhōuyuán tōng bǎo) is a copper-alloy cash coin produced during the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou dynasty, a historical Chinese state that existed in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.[1] The design of the Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins closely resembles that of the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) series produced during the earlier Tang dynasty period. The Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins were produced from recycled Buddhist statues confiscated from Buddhist temples.[2] For this reason the Zhouyuan Tongbao is commonly referred to as "Arhat money" (traditional Chinese: 羅漢錢; simplified Chinese: 罗汉钱; pinyin: Luóhàn qián) or as the "money that destroyed Buddha" (traditional Chinese: 毀佛錢; simplified Chinese: 毁佛钱; pinyin: Huǐ fú qián).[2] Nicknames only reserved for a handful of Chinese cash coins, as confiscation of Buddhist statues for coin production only happened around 7 times in Chinese history.[3][4]
Superstitions surrounding these bronze cash coins claim that they have amuletic properties because they were cast from Buddhist statues, and are particularly said to be effective in midwifery, hence many later-made imitations and amulets based on them exist and they have remained a popular motif for Chinese and Vietnamese amulets.
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Guo Wei, a native of Yaoshan, Xingzhou, founded the Later Zhou state in Dongjing (東京, present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province) in 951.[5] In 954, Guo Wei's adopted son Chai Rong succeeded to the throne, in Chinese historiography he is referred to Emperor Zhou Shizong, and adopted reign era to Xiande (顯德).[5] During this period, there was a shortage of bronze cash coins in circulation in Later Zhou making private transactions were very difficult.[5]
The Zhouyuan Tongbao commenced production in the year Xiande 2 (顯德二年), February 955 AD (using the Gregorian calendar), during the reign of Emperor Shizong and was the first cash coin produced by the Later Zhou dynasty.[6] It is said that Emperor Shizong himself would supervise their casting at the many large furnaces at the back of the palace.[7]
The Later Zhou dynasty was heavily in debt and in order to try to pay off the government's debts, Emperor Shizong started a campaign to procure enough copper for the production of cash coins.[8] As copper was scarce during the Later Zhou period, the government tried confiscate enough bronze to cash coins to be able to pay for government expenditures and a number of policies were enacted, initially Emperor Shizong prohibited households from holding bronze utensils and later the Later Zhou would confiscate the assets of Buddhist temples to produce bronze cash coins.[9][10]
The imperial government of the Later Zhou dynasty re-melted Buddhist bronze statues from 3356 temples to produce bronze coins.[9] This decision was not just opposed by the Buddhists but also by his advisors, including both civil and military mandarins.[11] When reproached for this, the emperor claimed that Gautama Buddha himself would not mind this sacrifice.[7]
Generally speaking, cash coins produced from the Warring States period until the reign of the Jiajing Emperor of the Ming dynasty were made of bronze, but because the Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins were cast from melted Buddhist statues, which are typically brass, they contain higher levels of zinc that other coinages from this period.[9] Though zinc was present in these coins, the quantity remains quite low overall with values of zinc up to 2–4%.[9]
Because they were believed to have spiritual powers inherited from the Buddhist statues, these coins were subsequently much-copied throughout Chinese history, these copies are popularly known as "folk coins" (民俗錢) and are believed to have the same spiritual powers as the original coins.[12][9]
Design
The design and calligraphy of the Zhouyuan Tongbao very closely resembles those of the Kaiyuan Tongbao series of cash coins produced during the Tang dynasty period.[6] It is a typical bronze Xiaoping Qian (小平錢) in size and weight, and its inscription is written using clerical script.[6] The second stroke of the "Yuan" (元) character is written "picked from the left" ("元"字第二筆左挑).[b][6]
Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins generally have a diameter of about 24 mm to 25 mm, with the largest recorded one being 25.8 mm, and the smallest one being only 22.6 mm.[13] They typically weigh between 3 and 4 grams, with the heaviest recorded one being 4.6 grams, and the lightest one being only 2.9 grams.[13]
FD = Fisher's Ding (丁), George A. Fisher's copy of Ding Fubao's (丁福保) original work catalogue, 1980, 251 pages.
Schjøth = "Chinese Currency, Currency of the Far East - A Comprehensive Text Chou Dynasty, 1122 B.C.–255 B.C. Through Ch'ing Dynasty 1644 A.D.–1911 A.D." by Fredrik Schjøth and Virgil Hancock, Oslow, Norway, 1929.
As the Zhouyuan Tongbao was created from Buddhist statues the inscription very quickly became a popular inscription used on Chinese numismatic charms (see "Chinese charms with coin inscriptions").[16] As ancient Chinese people believed that Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins were "auspicious" because of there origins, this belief Was carried over to the coin charms and amulets produced during the following centuries which display the same inscription.[16] The general idea behind the "charm powers" of the Zhouyuan Tongbao inscription is based on the fact that the original cash coins were created from Buddhist statues meaning that their religious significance was transferred to the cash coins.[16]
In Vietnam, a number of coin amulets with the inscription Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo (the Vietnamese reading of the traditional Chinese characters "周元通寳") were also produced, some of the amulets with this inscription were uniquely produced and used as lucky and protective charms in Vietnam.[20][21] According to French numismatist François Thierry some of these Vietnamese Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo amulets had distinctive features that differentiated them from their Chinese counterparts, for example some Vietnamese amulets with this inscription are written using an elegant form of the bā fēn (八分) style of Chinese calligraphy (alternatively known as "diverting style"), which was developed during the Han dynasty period.[22][20] Thierry further states that the Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo amulet was especially desired by Chinese and Vietnamese women who wished to have a male child, as it was believed that being in possession of this amulet would increase the chances of having a son.[20]
Reverse: Plain. Script as the cash coin. 40 mm.[23]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The cash coins supposedly have amuletic properties because they were made from Buddhist statues, and are particularly perceived to be effective in midwifery - hence the many later-made imitations which closely resemble the coins.
The cash coins supposedly have amuletic properties because they were made from Buddhist statues, and are particularly perceived to be effective in midwifery - hence the many later-made imitations which closely resemble the coins.
Hartill #4.2368
Reverse: Plain. Char/ square hole: 42 mm, Vietnamese.[23]
Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo (周元通寳)
The cash coins supposedly have amuletic properties because they were made from Buddhist statues, and are particularly perceived to be effective in midwifery - hence the many later-made imitations which closely resemble the coins.
Reverse: Dot t ☰ (The first of the Eight Trigrams). Char/pic square hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2377
Reverse: Crescent t. Char/pic square hole. Many of the authentic Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins also have crescents and dots, but they are rather faint.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2378
Reverse: Seated Buddha t. Char/pic square hole.[24]
The crescent on the reverse is said to represent the moon. In Chinese mythology the moon is the residence of Jin Chan. In Taoist mythology the "Jade Rabbit" (a.k.a. the "Moon Hare") lives on the moon, and is known for making the elixir of immortality. The moon is often a location for various figures from Chinese mythology.
Reverse: Seated Arhat (Lohan) around the hole. Char/pic square hole.[24]
Reverse: Fish jumping over the Dragon Gate. Char/pic square hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The fish's jumping feature is set in such a proverbial Chinese idiom as "Liyu (Carp) jumps over the Dragon Gate" (鯉躍龍門), which is an idiom that conveys a vivid image symbolising a sudden uplifting in one's social status.
Hartill #4.2383
Obverse: Scrollwork on rim. Reverse: Emblems. Char/pic square hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2384
Reverse: Seven Stars tl Sword r Snake and Tortoise b. Char/pic square hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2385
Obverse: Broad rim. Reverse: Moon t Sword r Snake b Seven Stars 1. Char/pic squ hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2387
Reverse: Sun & Moon r Seven Stars. Char/pic square hole.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2386, S #1.127.
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic squ hole: 26 mm.[24]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2388
A Zhouyuan Tongbao coin charm version with a reverse dragon and fenghuang design, some versions have a dragon on the left side and a fenghuang on its right.[16] The two mythical creatures are facing each other with their heads at the bottom of the reverse side of the coin charm.[16] The diameter of this version is 22.5 millimeters and it has a weight of 5.6 grams.[16]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
A Zhouyuan Tongbao coin charm with a dragon and fenghuang reverse has the dragon on the right and the fenghuang on left.[16] The Chinese dragon, which is located on the right side of the amulet with the tip of its mouth at the 12 o'clock position and a dot representing its left eye at the 1 o'clock position. The dragon's left front claw is just above the square central hole.[16] Its body curves down the right side of the coin charm and its left rear claw is depicted just below the square central hole.[16] While it isn't a very easy to see on it, the wings of the fenghuang are just to the left of the square hole.[16] The head of the fenghuang is at the 11 o'clock position of the coin charm and the fenghuang's tail feathers are at the 7 o'clock position.[16] The dragon's tail is almost touching the fenghuang's upper tail feather.[16] The two mythical creatures on this coin charm are depicted facing each other by showcasing their heads at the top rather than the bottom.[16] This version of the Zhouyuan Tongbao charm has a diameter of 25 millimeters and weighs 6.6 grams.[16]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
A Zhouyuan Tongbao coin charm version with the dragon is on the right and the fenghuang is on the left has them sculpted in high relief.[16] Like the above variant these two mythical creatures face each other at the top of the charm, depicting both heads there.[16] This version of the charm has a diameter of 23.5 millimeters and weighs 6.8 grams.[16]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Reverse: Shaggy Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2390
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2391
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole: 22 mm.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2392, CC #154
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole: 23 mm.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2393, AC #269, CS #139
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic squ hole: 26 mm.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2394, AC #270
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2395, CS #138 (25 mm), AC #271 (28 mm)
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square squ hole.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2396
Reverse: Dragon and fenghuang. Char/pic square hole.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2397
Rev: Dragon and Flaming Pearl. Char/pic square hole: 25 mm.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2398
Obverse: Lei wen rim. Reverse: Dragon in high relief. Char/pic square hole. 20th century.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
Hartill #4.2399
Rev: Dragon and fenghuang in high relief. Char/pic square hole. Late 19th-early 20th century.[25]
Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2400, CC #441 (60 mm), ACV #162 (63 mm)
Reverse: Sun 日 (Sun) r Moon b 月 (Moon) l. Char/var squ hole: 24 mm.[26]
Zhouyuan Tongbao - Ri Yue (周元通寳 - 日月)
Hartill #4.2413, CC #153
Reverse: A 龍鳳 (Dragon, fenghuang). Char/char square hole.[27]
Zhouyuan Tongbao - Long Feng (周元通寳 - 龍鳳)
The dragon and fenghuang are often used as a symbol of harmony in marriage. Often the dragon is used to represent the emperor and the fenghuang the empress-consort.
Hartill #4.2414
Reverse: 平南 (Peace, South - meaning not clear). Char/char square hole.[27]
Zhouyuan Tongbao - Ping Nan (周元通寳 - 平南)
Hartill #4.2415
Reverse: 文王 (King Wen). Char/char square hole. King Wen was the King of Zhou (1152 - 1056 BC) during the late Shang dynasty period in ancient China. He was posthumously honoured as the founder of the Zhou dynasty.[27]
Zhouyuan Tongbao - Zi Chou Yin Mao Chen Si Wu Wei Shen You Xu Hai (周元通寳 - 子丑寅卯辰巳午未申酉戌亥)
Hartill #4.2417, S #1.140
Obverse: 天府 (Heavenly Office) on loop. Reverse: Zhou Chu killing the Tiger. 蟾宮 (Palace of the Toad) on loop. Fancy loop Chinese pendant charm, leaves char/pic square hole.[27]
Zhouyuan Tongbao - Tian Fu - Chan Gong (周元通寳 - 天府 - 蟾宮)
Hartill #4.2418
Derivative inscription
Obverse: Zhou Yuan (The period title of a Five Dynasties Emperor). Sun r Moon l. Reverse: The Eight Trigrams. Char/pic square hole: 67 mm.[28]
Zhou Yuan (周元)
Hartill #4.2359, CS #586
Obverse: 日 (Sun) r 月 (Moon) l top. F 天下 (Earth) r & l below. Reverse: Dot and Crescent t Figures r & l. Sword? b. Char/pic square hole: 40 mm.[28]
Zhouyuan Tianxia - Ri Yue (周元天下 - 日月)
Hartill #4.2360, CS #450
Obverse: 日 (Sun) r 月 (Moon) l, Lucky Clouds below. Reverse: The Eight Trigrams. Var/pic square hole: 23 mm.[28]
Zhouyuan Riyue (周元日月)
Hartill #4.2361, CC #155
Obverse: Zhou Yuan Ri Yue (Zhou Yuan, Sun and Moon). Reverse: The Eight Trigrams in cells. Char/pic square hole.[23]
Zhouyuan Riyue (周元日月)
Hartill #4.2363
Obverse: Zhou Yuan Tian Lian (Zhou Yuan Heavenly Connection). Dot tl crescent tr. Reverse: 龍鳳 (Dragon and fenghuang). t & b. Char/char square hole: 35 mm.[23]
Zhouyuan Tianlian - Long Feng (周元天連 - 龍鳳)
Hartill #4.2362, CS #448
Obverse: Zhou Yuan Cui Sheng (Zhou Yuan, Midwifery). Reverse: The Eight Trigrams in radial cells. Char/pic square hole: 36 mm.[23]
Zhouyuan Cuisheng (周元催生)
It is believed that carrying around a Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coin helps women during pregnancy and childbirth.
Hartill #4.2364, CC #350
Obverse: Zhou Yuan Cui Sheng (Zhou Yuan, Midwifery). Reverse: 龍鳳 (Dragon and fenghuang) t & b Figures? l & r. Char/var square hole 37 mm.[23]
Zhouyuan Cuisheng - Long Feng (周元催生 - 龍鳳)
It is believed that carrying around a Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coin helps women during pregnancy and childbirth.
CC = Classic Chinese Charms. Editor: Zheng Yiwei, Deputy Editors: Guo Yi-ling et al. Shanghai (2004).
CS = Sequel of Classic Chinese Charms. Editor Zheng Yiwei, Deputy Editors Liu Yuan, Li Guangjie. Shanghai 2006.
S = С. Н. ШЕВЦОВ - КИТАЙСКИЕ МОНЕТОВИАНЫЕ АМУЛЕТЫ НАЛПИСИ, CIOжEты, CимВОлы (Sergei Shevtsov - Chinese Coin Amulets. Inscriptions, Narration, Symbols), Moscow (2019).
Manufacturing process
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period the method employed to produce cash coins was known as the "sand casting method" (翻砂法), which was a technique where cash coins were cast using vertically arranged two-piece moulds.[29] This technique allowed a large number of cash coins to be produced in batches.[29]
In the sand casting method the preparation of moulds was done with fine sand which was reinforced using an organic binder, and placed inside of a wooden box.[29] Consistency of the designs was maintained through the creation of "mother coins" (母錢).[29][30] Around 50 to 100 "mother coins" were pressed lightly into the surface of the mould box and was followed by the placing down of a second mould box on top of the first one.[29] This allowed for an impression to be taken of both sides of the pattern of the mother coin.[29] After the impression was taken the mould boxes would be turned over and separated, which would allow the mother coin to stay placed on the surface or the lower mould.[29] A new fresh mould box would subsequently be laid on top and this allowed the pair to be turned and separated again. Using this methodology, the mint workers obtained a series of two-piece moulds.[29] Afterwards, the casting channels between the cash coin imprints and a central tunnel were cleared out, allowing the boxes to be fixed together in pairs of two. The final step involved the pouring in of molten metal.[29]
When the process was done and the metal was allowed to cool down a "coin tree" was formed, from this "coin tree" the cash coins could be separated and cleaned up.[29][31]
In March 1997, on the bank of the Hun river in Qingshuihe County, Inner Mongolia, a jar of cash coins weighing 7 kilograms was unearthed.[32] The jar contained over 30 Zhouyuan Tongbao cash coins among other coins, with the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty period Dading Tongbao (大定通寶) being the latest.[32] The cash coins stored in the jar are well preserved because they were buried in an arid and less rainy area.[33]
^Some cash coins, such as this one, have a "yuan" (元) character with a left shoulder, or zuo tiao (左挑). While other cash coins may have the "yuan" with a right shoulder (右挑, you tiao) or both shoulders (双挑, shuang tiao).
References
^Wang Xipeng (汪锡鹏) - Zhouyuan Tongbao — The Eternal Monument of the Later Zhou Dynasty (周元通宝——后周永远的丰碑) - "China Urban Finance" 2010 Issue 5 (《中国城市金融》2010年 第5期). Publisher: Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, Shanghai Branch (中国工商银行上海市分行).
^ abMa T, Xing Q, Li M, et al. Discussion of the buddha-destroy coins in Chinese coin history. Orient Arch. 2018;15:78–91 (in Mandarin Chinese).
^Dong Liangyi (董良义) - A brief introduction to the previous incidents of destroying Buddhas and casting coins in history (简述历史上的历次毁佛铸钱事件) - "Jiangsu Coins" Issue 3, 2016 (《江苏钱币》2016年 第3期).
^Ma Tiancheng (马天成), Xing Qi (邢琪), Li Ming (李铭), and Guo Junfeng (郭俊峰) - On the Destroyed Buddha Money in the History of Chinese Currency (论中国货币史上的毁佛钱) - "Oriental Archeology" 2018 Issue 1 (《东方考古》2018年 第1期) - Tai'an Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology (泰安市文物考古研究所) - Jinan Institute of Archeology (济南市考古研究所). Quote: 『在中国古代,毁佛钱的种类虽然不多,但是在中国古代货币史上占有的重要地位却是不容忽视的。通过查阅资料,我们发现中国货币史上共有七种毁佛钱。』("In ancient China, although there were not many types of Buddha-destroyed money, its important position in the history of ancient Chinese currency cannot be ignored. By consulting the data, we found that there are seven kinds of Buddha-destroyed money in the history of Chinese currency.").
^ abcdefghZhao Dexin (赵德馨) - Dictionary of Chinese Economic History (中国经济史辞典)．Wuhan (武汉)：Hubei Dictionary Publishing House (湖北辞书出版社)，1990. Page: 312. (in Mandarin Chinese).
^Zhang Guoying (张国英) - Destroy the Buddha to make money, two coins flow by themselves (毁佛以铸钱 两币自流长) - "Financial Economics" 2000 No. 11 (《金融经济》2000年 第11期).
^Peng Yuantong (彭远同) - Zhouyuan Tongbao flower coin with a dragon and fenghuang pattern on its reverse (周元通宝背龙凤纹花钱) - "Favourites" Issue 6, 2009 (《收藏》2009年 第6期) - Langzhong, Sichuan (四川阆中). - Quote: "“周元通宝”是五代时期铸行最多、质量最好的铜钱。据史料载：后周世宗柴荣显德二年（955年），下令精简天下寺院，毁铜怫铸钱，以便促进货物流通，经济发展。此举遭到佛教徒和文武大臣们的反对，于是周世宗搬出“舍身饲虎”的典故。".
^Hu Jinhua (胡金华) & Guo Xiaoming (郭晓明) - Trial Analysis of Zhouyuan Tongbao Folk Money Patterns (周元通宝民俗钱图案试析) - "Cultural Relics Spring and Autumn" 2008 No. 6 (《文物春秋》2008年 第6期) - Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics, Shijiazhuang, Hebei (河北省文物研究所, 河北石家庄).
^ abYi Feng (夷风) - The casting background of the Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通宝的铸造背景) - "Anhui Numismatics" 2011 No. 2 (《安徽钱币》2011年 第2期). - Quote: "周元通宝,一般钱径在24mm至25mm左右,大型者达到25.8mm,小型者只有22.6mm;重量一般在3g至4g之间,最重者4.6g,轻者只有2.9g。"
^"Chinese Coins and Traditional Chinese Medicine". Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primal Trek – a journey through Chinese culture). 16 November 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2023. Another cash coin that was favored for its medicinal properties was the Zhou Yuan Tong Bao (周元通宝) which was cast beginning in the year 956 AD during the reign of Emperor Shi Zong of the Late Zhou. A Zhou Yuan Tong Bao coin is shown at the left. Metal for the casting of these coins came from the melting down of Buddhist statues and was, therefore, considered to be of very high quality. For hundreds of years, the Chinese have used this coin in medicine to prevent miscarriages.
^ abcGreenbaum, Craig (2006). "Amulets of Vietnam". - Quote: "Amulet # 1 - 43 mm Copper (22.9 grams) - Obverse (Right): 周 元 通 寶 - Châu Nguyên Thông Bảo - Original Zhou Circulating Treasure - Reverse (Left): Blank - Other References: Thierry (CMV) # 1897, 1900, 1901, 1902 & 1903 - See Also: - Chapter One – Schroeder # 505 - Chapter Two - Thierry # 179 - Chapter Two – Thierry # 1902 - Amulet made in Vietnam (Distribution: Vietnam) - Age: 18th to 19th Century - Type: Good Luck/Protective."
^Emmanuel Poisson (10 December 2016). The Vietnamese Charms in the Department of Coins and Medals of the French National Library. SpringerSingapore. pp. 223–233. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_11. ISBN978-981-10-1791-9. Retrieved 13 August 2023. Although there are charms made of wood, paper, cloth, etc., this paper will deal with coin-shaped charms, ya sheng qian 厭勝錢 coins for submission of and triumph over demons. Traditionally, Chinese researchers present them in the final chapters of numismatic books or in their supplements. They are essentially a subject of numismatic study. It means researchers give weight, size, metal features and a brief description, without analysis of images or symbols.
^Zheng Jiaxiang (鄭家相) and Zeng Jingyi (曾敬儀) - ‘Lidai tongzhi huobi yezhu fa jianshuo’ (歷代銅質貨幣冶鑄法簡說) [A brief introduction to the methods of casting copper coins in the history], in Wenwu (文物) [Cultural relics], 4 (1959), pp. 68–70. (in Mandarin Chinese).
^Sheridan Bowman, Michael Cowell and Joe Cribb. "Two thousand years of coinage in China: an analytical survey" in Wang, Helen et al. (eds.) (2005). p. 5.
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