This Timeline of women's education is an overview of the history of education for women worldwide. It includes key individuals, institutions, law reforms, and events that have contributed to the development and expansion of educational opportunities for women.
The timeline highlights early instances of women's education, such as the establishment of girls' schools and women's colleges, as well as legal reforms like compulsory education laws that have had a significant impact on women's access to education.
The 18th and 19th centuries saw significant growth in the establishment of girls' schools and women's colleges, particularly in Europe and North America. Legal reforms began to play a crucial role in shaping women's education, with laws being passed in many countries to make education accessible and compulsory for girls.
The 20th century marked a period of rapid advancement in women's education. Coeducation became more widespread, and women began to enter fields of study that were previously reserved for men. Legislative measures, such as Title IX in the United States, were enacted to ensure equality in educational opportunities.
The timeline also reflects social movements and cultural shifts that have affected women's education, such as the women's suffrage movement, which contributed to the broader fight for women's rights, including education.
Various international organizations and initiatives have been instrumental in promoting women's education in developing countries, recognizing the role of education in empowering women and promoting social and economic development.
This timeline illustrates how women's education has evolved and reflects broader societal changes in gender roles and equality.
Pages from the illuminated scroll of the 'Tale of Genji' Late Heian period, 12th century, Japan. Originally written by Murasaki Shikibu in the 11th century.12th-century manuscript of the Alexiad by Anna Komnene in Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence
Anna Komnene is educated in Greek literature, history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and medicine. She contributes to literary works and writes the Alexiad.
14th-century illustration of William of Nottingham II lecturing at Oxford or Cambridge; one of his students is a woman wearing a cowl.Ancrene Wisse; leaf from the Book of HoursReal Colegio de Doncellas Nobles, a girls' school founded in Toledo, Spain, in 1551.
Beatriz Galindo excels in Latin, studies at one of the institutions dependent on the University of Salamanca, writes commentary on Aristotle and becomes a teacher of the queen.
The Swedish Church Ordinance 1571 stipulates that both boys and girls should be given basic schooling such as reading, writing, counting and basic commercial skills.
Juliana Morell "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607 in Lyon or maybe Avignon, although claims that she received a doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited. According to Lope de Vega, she taught "all the sciences from professorial chairs".
German-born Dutch Anna Maria van Schurman, proficient in 14 languages, studies as the first female student at Utrecht University, Netherlands, but without obtaining a degree.
The French colony of Acadia, which at the time included part of Maine, had an Ursuline boarding school by 1639 that was geared toward the education of young girls. The school was founded in Quebec City and is still in operation today.
In this year, Bishop Calderon of Santiago wrote to Queen Mother Maria Anna concerning the Spanish efforts at colonizing Florida. In his letter he included some comments about the state of education and stated, "The children, both male and female, go to church on work days, to a religious school where they are taught by a teacher whom they call Athequi of the church; [a person] whom the priests have for this service." This description indicates that the colonies of New Spain had facilities for female education at least by the 1600s. It is not clear how far back this goes; the 1512 laws of Burgos, from over a hundred years earlier, did not specify whether instruction should be for males only: it uses the word hijos, which means sons, but can include daughters if they are mixed in with the boys.
Elena Cornaro Piscopia, an Italian woman, earns a Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy) degree from the University of Padua in Italy and is said to have taught mathematics at the University of Padua.
The first secular secondary education girls' school in Germany is established by the Pietist August Hermann Francke in Halle, and becomes a pioneer institution for a number of girls' schools in Germany during the 18th century.
Founded in 1727 by the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula, Ursuline Academy, New Orleans, is both the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States. The Ursuline Sisters founded this school out of the conviction that the education of women was essential to the development of a civilized, spiritual and just society, and has influenced culture and learning in New Orleans by providing an education for its women.
Laura Bassi, an Italian woman, earns a Ph.D. degree at the University of Bologna in Italy, and teaches physics at the same university. She was the first woman to have a doctorate in science. Working at the University of Bologna, she was also the first salaried woman teacher in a university, and at one time she was the highest paid employee. She was also the first woman member of any scientific establishment, when she was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna in 1732.
At only 16 years of age, Countess Benigna von Zinzendorf establishes the first all-girls boarding school in America, sponsored by her father Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf. Originally known as the Bethlehem Female Seminary upon its 1742 founding, it changed its name to Moravian Seminary and College for Women by 1913. 1863 proved the Germantown, Pennsylvania-based school's most landmark year, however, when the state recognized it as a college and granted it permission to award bachelor's degrees. As a result, most tend to accept Moravian as the oldest—though not continuously operational because of its current co-ed status—specifically female institute of higher learning in the United States.
Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland, appoints the first women instructors at any American college or university, Elizabeth Callister Peale and Sarah Callister, members of the famous Peale family of artists. They teach painting and drawing.
Bradford Academy in Bradford, Massachusetts, was the first higher educational institution to admit women in Massachusetts. It was founded as a co-educational institution, but became exclusively for women in 1836.
The Sociedad de Beneficencia de Buenos Aires is charged by the government to establish and control (private) elementary schools for girls, retaining control of the schools for girls until 1876.
As a private institution in 1831, Mississippi College becomes the first coeducational college in the United States to grant a degree to a woman. In December 1831 it grants degrees to two women, Alice Robinson and Catherine Hall.
Primary education becomes compulsory for both boys and girls, in parallel with the foundation of the first private secondary educational schools for girls, such as the Arsakeio.
Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts, opens as Mount Holyoke Seminary. Founded by Mary Lyons, it becomes one of the first institutions of higher learning for women in the United States.
Established in 1836, Georgia Female College in Macon, Georgia, opens its doors to students on January 7, 1839. Now known as Wesleyan College, it is the first college in the world chartered specifically to grant bachelor's degrees to women.
Rosina Widmann opens a vocational school for girls in January 1847, with the first classes in needlework for 12 girls at her home in Akropong in the Gold Coast colony.
Josefa Vega is granted dispensation to attend lectures at university, after which women are given the right to apply for permission to attend lectures at university (though not to an actual full university education).
Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi graduates from the New York College of Pharmacy in 1863, making her the first woman to graduate from a United States school of pharmacy.
Rebecca Lee Crumpler becomes the first African-American woman to graduate from a U.S. college with a medical degree, and the first and only Black woman to obtain the Doctress of Medicine degree from Boston University in Boston, Massachusetts.
The educational reform grants all Romanians access to education. At least formally, this gave females the right to attend school from elementary education to the university.
University courses for women are opened, which opens the profession of teacher, law assistant and similar lower academic professions for women (in 1876, the courses are no longer allowed to give exams, and in 1883, all outside of the capital are closed).
In Edinburgh, the Watt Institution and School of Arts, a predecessor of Heriot-Watt University, admits women. Mary Burton persuades the Watt Institution and School of Arts to open its doors to women students in 1869 and goes on to become the first woman on the school's board of directors and a life governor of Heriot-Watt College.
The Edinburgh Seven are the first group of matriculated undergraduate female students at any British university. They began studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1869 and although they were unsuccessful in their struggle to graduate and qualify as doctors, the campaign they fought gained national attention and won them many supporters, including Charles Darwin. It put the rights of women to a university education on the national political agenda which eventually resulted in legislation to ensure that women could study at university in 1877.
The Board of Regents of the University of California rules that women should be admitted on an equal basis with men. With the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 222 female students.
The Asociación para la Enseñanza de la Mujer is founded, promoting education for women; it establishes secondary schools and training colleges all over Spain, making secondary and higher education open to females for the first time.
Harriette Cooke becomes the first woman college professor in the United States,omes appointed full professor with a salary equal to that of her male peers.
The American College for Girls, initially known as The Home School, is opened in Constantinople to educate women as professional teachers for girls' schools; the profession of teacher becomes accessible for women and education accessible to girls.
María Elena Maseras is allowed to enlist as a university student with special dispensation. After being formally admitted to a class in 1875, she was finally allowed to graduate in 1882, creating a precedent for women to enroll at universities from this point on.
The first public Egyptian primary school for girls is opened. Two years later, there are 32 primary schools for females in Egypt, three also offering secondary education.
Sarah Woodhead becomes the first woman to take and pass a Tripos examination. In particular, she is the first woman to take, and to pass, the Mathematical Tripos exam.
Girls are included in the national school system by the transference of control of private girls schools from the charitable Beneficent Society to the provincial government.
The University of London receives a supplemental charter allowing it to award degrees to women, the first university in the United Kingdom to open its degrees.
Iulia Hasdeu becomes the first Romanian woman to study at the Sorbonne. She enrolled at age 16 and died two years later while preparing her doctoral thesis.
Maria Louise Baldwin becomes the first African-American female principal in Massachusetts and the Northeast, supervising white faculty and a predominantly white student body at the Agassiz Grammar School in Cambridge.
In 1893, the South Carolina General Assembly mandates "that women should be allowed to attend [ South Carolina College ] as special students". Two years later, the college's Board of Trustees makes the decision to allow female students into the school.
Clara Holst becomes the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Norway (from Royal Frederick University) with a dissertation was titled Studier over middelnedertyske laaneord i dansk i det 14. og 15. aarhundrede (English: Study of Middle Low German loanwords in Danish in the 14th and 15th centuries).
Nora Stanton Blatch Barney, born in England, becomes one of the first women to earn a degree in any type of engineering in the United States (in civil engineering Cornell University).
Edith Morley is appointed Professor of English Language at University College Reading, becoming the first full professor at a British university institute.
Caroline Spurgeon successfully competes for the newly created chair of English Literature at Bedford College, London, becoming the second female professor in England.
Lillian Gilbreth becomes the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in industrial psychology (from Brown University with a dissertation titled "Some Aspects of Eliminating Waste in Teaching").
Sigma Gamma Rho sorority is founded as the fourth Black Greek letter organization for women and the first Black sorority established on a predominantly White campus, Butler University in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Virginia Proctor Powell Florence becomes the first Black woman in the United States to earn a degree in library science (with a Bachelor of Library Science from what is now part of the University of Pittsburgh).
Violet McKenzie becomes the first woman to gain a diploma in electrical engineering (from Sydney Technical College now known as TAFE New South Wales Sydney Institute).
Elsie MacGill, from Canada, becomes the first woman in North America, and probably worldwide, to be awarded a master's degree in aeronautical engineering.
Ruth Winifred Howard becomes the second African-American woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (from the University of Minnesota).
Elizabeth Abimbola Awoliyi becomes the first woman to be licensed to practice medicine in Nigeria after graduating from Trinity College Dublin and the first West African female medical officer with a license of the Royal Surgeon (Dublin).
Maryly Van Leer Peck, becomes the first female chemical engineering graduate, receiving an M.S. and later a Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the University of Florida.
Florence Mahoney becomes the first Gambian woman to obtain a Ph.D., graduating from the School of Oriental and African Studies with a doctorate in history.
Mary Lockett becomes the first woman appointed as a professor at the University of Western Australia when she was appointed Wellcome Foundation research professor of pharmacology.
Sophie Kanza became the first Congolese woman to graduate from a university when she received her diploma from the University of Geneva with a degree in sociology.
Sister Mary Kenneth Keller becomes the first American woman to earn a Ph.D. in Computer Science (from the University of Wisconsin–Madison with a thesis titled "Inductive Inference on Computer-Generated Patterns".
Bradford College in Bradford, Massachusetts becomes a co-educational institution (again) after being founded in 1803 as co-educational and then serving exclusively as a female institution of higher learning from 1837 to 1972. Bradford College closed permanently in May, 2000. The Bradford Alumni Association continues today and is the third oldest continuing alumni association in the United States.
One of the earliest and largest open universities, Allama Iqbal Open University started providing distance education, making it accessible for women who couldn't attend traditional schooling due to societal or logistical barriers.
In 1975, the United Nations declared 1976-1985 the Decade for Women, which profoundly impacted raising awareness about gender inequalities, including those in education. The period witnessed international conferences focusing on women, the first of which was in Mexico City in 1975, the second in Copenhagen in 1980, and the third in Nairobi in 1985.
The American Association of Dental Schools (founded in 1923 and renamed the American Dental Education Association in 2000) appoints Nancy Goorey as its first female president.
Jenny Patrick becomes the first Black woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in chemical engineering (from Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
The U.S. Supreme Court's 1984 ruling Grove City College v. Bell holds that Title IX applies only to those programs receiving direct federal aid. The case reaches the Supreme Court when Grove City College disagreed with the Department of Education's assertion that it was required to comply with Title IX. Grove City College was not a federally funded institution; however, they did accept students who were receiving Basic Educational Opportunity Grants through a Department of Education program. The Department of Education's stance was that, because some of its students were receiving federal grants, the school was receiving federal assistance and Title IX applied to it. The Court decided that since Grove City College was only receiving federal funding through the grant program, only that program had to be in compliance. The ruling was a major victory for those opposed to Title IX, as it made many institutions' sports programs outside of the rule of Title IX and, thus, reduced the scope of Title IX.
To combat gender disparities in higher education, the University of Zimbabwe introduced a quota system to ensure a higher enrollment of women in its programs.
The Civil Rights Restoration Act is passed, extending Title IX coverage to all programs of any educational institution that receives any federal assistance, both direct and indirect.
Benazir Bhutto became the first woman to lead a Muslim-majority country as Prime Minister. She had been educated at both Oxford and Harvard, and her leadership set a significant precedent in the Muslim world.
Indigenous K'iche' woman Rigoberta Menchú received the Nobel Peace Prize for her work in social justice and ethno-cultural reconciliation based on respect for the rights of indigenous peoples. Her prominence also highlighted the importance of education and advocacy.
The Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, sponsored by Congresswoman Cardiss Collins, requires federally assisted higher education institutions to disclose information on roster sizes for men's and women's teams, as well as budgets for recruiting, scholarships, coaches' salaries, and other expenses, annually.
At the Fourth World Conference on Women of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, governments globally committed to a detailed action plan. It highlighted the importance of ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for women and girls.
Following the ousting of the Taliban regime in 2001 by U.S.-led forces, girls' school attendance in Afghanistan increased significantly. By 2018, over 3.6 million girls were enrolled in schools, marking a substantial rise from previous years, especially in secondary education.
India launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in 2001 as a government program to achieve Universalisation of Elementary Education. This program was particularly notable for its focus on the education of girls and children with special needs. The SSA aimed to provide quality elementary education, including life skills and computer education, to about 193 million children across 1.1 million habitations.
Rwanda made significant strides in achieving gender parity in education after the 1994 genocide. The government established the Girls' Education Task Force in 2004 to promote education for young girls. Several policies were introduced to continue gender equality in education, such as the Girls Education Policy (2008), the National Education Policy (2010), and the University of Rwanda Gender Policy (2016). These policies dedicated 50% of student university positions to women and addressed the socio-economic barriers hindering girls' education. Rwanda's success in promoting girls' education is evident in the fact that it currently boasts the highest participation rates in East Africa and has achieved gender parity in net and gross enrollment at pre-primary, primary, and secondary levels.
Saudi Arabia witnessed a significant transformation in higher education for women after 2005, particularly under the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Scholarship program introduced by King Abdullah. This program was designed to strengthen Saudi academic institutions and broaden their research and course offerings. It marked a notable shift in the country's approach to female education, with an increase in female graduates leading to incremental improvements in the number of women entering top jobs and earning salaries on par with their male colleagues. This change was part of a broader effort to diversify the Saudi economy and embrace high-tech, creative, and specialized industries under the Kingdom's Vision 2030 reform agenda. The reforms not only enhanced educational opportunities for women but also aimed to align students' qualifications with the job market in Saudi Arabia, thereby raising overall efficiency and developing managerial techniques.
For the first time, more doctoral degrees are conferred on women than men in the United States. This educational gap has continued to increase in the U.S., especially for master's degrees where over 50% more degrees are conferred on women than men.
On November 24, 2006, the Title IX regulations are amended to provide greater flexibility in the operation of single-sex classes or extracurricular activities at the primary or secondary school level.
Kenya's introduction of free primary education in 2003 led to a significant increase in school enrollment rates, achieving over 90% primary enrollment by 2010 and attaining gender parity in primary schools. However, despite this progress, disparities remained at the regional level, with enrollment being much lower in areas with high poverty levels. In some regions, only 19% of girls were enrolled in school. The policy was particularly effective in reducing the educational gender gap and increasing the overall number of students in primary education, including girls
In April 2011, the Institute for Buddhist Dialectical Studies (IBD) in Dharamsala, India, confers the degree of geshe (a Tibetan Buddhist academic degree for monks and nuns) to Venerable Kelsang Wangmo, a German nun, thus making her the world's first female geshe.
It is announced that Ephraim Mirvis has created the job of ma'ayan by which women would be advisers on Jewish law in the area of family purity and as adult educators in Orthodox synagogues. This requires a part-time training course for 18 months, the first such course in the United Kingdom.
On the night of April 14–15, 2014, 276 female students aged 16 to 18 were kidnapped by the Islamic terrorist group Boko Haram from the Government Girls Secondary School in Chibok, Borno State, Nigeria. This incident drew global attention and led to the launch of the #BringBackOurGirls campaign. The kidnapping highlighted the risks faced by girls pursuing education in conflict areas and the extreme measures taken by Boko Haram against western-style modern education. Despite efforts, many of the kidnapped girls remained missing years after the incident, underscoring the ongoing challenges in the region. The campaign for their release and the international attention it garnered underscored the widespread condemnation of Boko Haram's actions and the global concern for the safety and education of girls in conflict zones.
The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals, launched in 2015, included SDG 4 which specifically focuses on ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education for all. One of the main targets of SDG 4 is to eliminate gender disparities in education and to ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for vulnerable groups, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations. The goal emphasizes the importance of achieving literacy and numeracy for all youth and a significant proportion of adults, both men and women, by 2030. SDG 4 also highlights the need to increase the supply of qualified teachers and to improve infrastructure and facilities for effective learning environments, particularly in Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Despite progress, challenges such as a high number of out-of-school children and adolescents, as well as disparities in educational access and quality, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, continue to persist.
In 1998 Deep Springs College accepted a $1.8 million low-interest loan under the condition that it would begin admitting women by 2019.[359] In 2011, the college's trustees voted to begin accepting female students in the summer of 2013 but became embroiled in legal challenges which were lodged against the trustees' action.[360] The challengers disputed the authority of the college's board to change the admissions policy and included an injunction preventing the college from accepting female students until at least the 2018–2019 academic year.[361][362] On April 13, 2017, the California Court of Appeal ruled that the college could admit women in Hitz v. Hoekstra.[363] With the Supreme Court of California declining to hear an appeal,[364] the board of trustees voted once again to admit women, with the first female students arriving in July 2018.[365][366]
2020
Global
The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on girls' education worldwide in 2020 was profound and multi-faceted. UNESCO estimated that 11 million girls might not return to school following the pandemic, with girls aged 12-17 being particularly at risk of dropping out in low and lower-income countries. The challenges were especially acute for girls from low-income households and those in rural areas. The pandemic exacerbated existing inequalities and introduced new threats to girls' education, including increased risks of child marriage, early pregnancy, and gender-based violence. Many girls were married off as a result of the economic pressures of the pandemic on families, leading to increased teenage pregnancies and a rise in rape cases, often resulting in unwanted pregnancies and school dropouts. The pandemic also highlighted the need for greater investment in education and security for girls as resources for the future of the world.
In March 2022, the Taliban abruptly reversed their plans to allow girls to resume their secondary school education (defined as grade seven and upwards in Afghanistan). With the exception of the current cohort of university students, this decision leaves graduating from sixth grade as the highest level of educational attainment possible for Afghan women. Secondary schools for boys reopened on schedule.
^Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013
^Kouri, E. I. (2016), Kouri, E. I.; Olesen, Jens E. (eds.), "The Reformation in Sweden and Finland", The Cambridge History of Scandinavia: Volume 2: 1520–1870, The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 60–88, ISBN978-0-521-47300-2, archived from the original on 2021-08-12, retrieved 2023-08-04
^ abGrendler, Paul F. (1988). O'Malley, John W. (ed.). Schools, Seminaries, and Catechetical Instruction, in Catholicism in Early Modern History 1500–1700: A Guide to Research. Center for Information Research. p. 328.
^Robenstine, Clark (1992). "French Colonial Policy and the Education of Women and Minorities: Louisiana in the Early Eighteenth Century". History of Education Quarterly. 32 (2): 193–211. doi:10.2307/368985. ISSN0018-2680. JSTOR368985. S2CID147109780.
^Findlen, Paula. Science As A Career In Enlightenment Italy: The Strategies Of Laura Bassi. Isis 84 (1993): 440–469. History of Science, Technology & Medicine. Web. 3 June 2013."
^"Laura Bassi". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
^Monique Frize, Laura Bassi and Science in 18th Century Europe: The Extraordinary Life and Role of Italy's Pioneering Female Professor, Springer, p. 174.
^ abcdefBharati Ray:Women of India: Colonial and Post-colonial Periods, 2005
^ abcdNatalija Matić Zrnić, Jill A. Irvine & Carol S. Lilly: Natalija. Life in the Balkan Powder Keg 1880–1956. Central European University Press. 2008
^ abcCarlson, Marifran (2003). ¡Feminismo!: The Woman's Movement in Argentina from its Beginnings to Eva Perón.
^Elizabeth Cady Stanton; Anthony, Susan B.; Matilda Joslyn Gage; Ida Husted Harper, eds. (1889). History of Woman Suffrage: 1848–1861, Volume 1. Susan B. Anthony. p. 36. Retrieved 2011-04-18. the first public examination of a girl in geometry (1829).
^ abcdefghRubin, Barry, ed. (2012). The Middle East: A Guide to Politics, Economics, Society and Culture. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN978-0-7656-8094-5.
^Nana Opare Kwakye, Abraham (April 2018). "Returning African Christians in Mission to the Gold Coast". Studies in World Christianity. 24 (1): 25–45. doi:10.3366/swc.2018.0203. ISSN1354-9901.
^ abcdefghRichard J Evans (1979). Kvinnorörelsens historia i Europa, USA, Australien och Nya Zeeland 1840–1920 (The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America and Australasia, 1840–1920) Helsingborg: LiberFörlag Stockholm. ISBN91-38-04920-1 (Swedish)
^'The North London Collegiate School 1850–1950: A Hundred Years of Girls' Education' Published by Oxford University Press (1950)
^Jennifer Jenkins Wood (2014). Spanish Women Travelers at Home and Abroad, 1850–1920: From Tierra del Fuego to the land of the Midnight Sun. Bucknell University Press.
^ abcLilla Focus Uppslagsbok (Little Focus Encyclopedia) Focus Uppslagsböcker AB (1979) (in Swedish)
^Consuelo Flecha: Las primeras universitarias en España, 1872–1910. Narcea Ediciones, 1996
^Hanson, Katherine; Guilfoy, Vivian; Pillai, Sarita (2009-07-16). More than Title nine. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN978-0-7425-6642-2. Archived from the original on 2023-08-14. Retrieved 2011-04-18.
^Jensen-Vallin, Jacqueline A.; Beery, Janet L.; Mast, Maura B.; Greenwald, Sarah J., eds. (2018). Women in Mathematics: Celebrating the Centennial of the Mathematical Association of America. Springer. p. "Sarah+woodhead"+tripos+1873&pg=PA8 8. ISBN978-3-319-88303-8.
^Schwartz, Agata (2008). Shifting Voices: Feminist Thought and Women's Writing in Fin-de-siècle Austria and Hungary. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 248. ISBN978-0-7735-3286-1.
^Possing, Birgitte (20 July 2022). "pigeskoler" (in Danish). lex: Den Store Danske. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
^Μπέλλα (Bella), Μαριάνθης (Μαριάνθης) (7 September 2014). "Σεβαστή Καλλισπέρη (1858-1953)" [Sevasti Kallisperi (1858-1853)]. Criticeduc.blogspot (in Greek). Κριτικη Παιδαγωγικη (Critical Pedagogy). Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017. Author is a French Professor. Self-published, but with references.
^Bracher, Katherine (2007). "Klumpke Roberts, Dorothea". In Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R. (eds.). Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. ISBN978-0-387-31022-0.
^Waters, Mary Baskin (May 17, 2016). "Gibbes, Frances Guignard". South Carolina Encyclopedia. University of South Carolina, Institute for Southern Studies. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
^Coleman, Patricia H.; James-Abra, Erin (2008). "Clara Benson". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-12-11.
^Holm-Larsen, Signe (2 June 2023). "dansk skolehistorie" (in Danish). lex: Den Store Danske. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
^Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University. "Tohoku University | Spinnet". Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. Archived from the original on 2023-08-12. Retrieved 2023-08-12.
^"Cardiff Connect"(PDF). Cardiff University. October 2015. Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
^Jules Mersch: Biographie nationale du pays de Luxembourg depuis ses origines jusgu'a nos jours: collection présentée par Jules Mersch, Volym 6. Imprimerie de la Cour Victor Buck, 1962
^175 Years of Black Pitt People and Notable Milestones. (2004). Blue Black and Gold 2004: Chancellor Mark A. Norenberg Reports on the Pitt African American Experience, 44. Retrieved on 2009-05-22.
^Braginskaya, Nina V. (2016). "Olga Freidenberg: A Creative Mind Incarcerated"(PDF). In Wyles, Rosie; Hall, Edith (eds.). Women Classical Scholars: Unsealing the Fountain from the Renaissance to Jacqueline de Romilly. Translated by Tarlone, Zara M.; Zeide, Alla; Maslov, Boris. Oxford University Press. pp. 286–312. ISBN978-0-19-108965-7. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2019-05-24.
^Park, Jihang (1990). "Trailblazers in a Traditional World: Korea's First Women College Graduates, 1910-45". Social Science History. 14 (4): 533–558. doi:10.2307/1171331. ISSN0145-5532. JSTOR1171331.
^Clerk, Nicholas, T. (27 July 1999). Obituary: Jane Elizabeth Clerk, 1904 -1999. Accra: Presbyterian Church of Ghana, Funeral Bulletin. p. 1.
^ abcTetty, Charles (1985). "Medical Practitioners of African Descent in Colonial Ghana". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 18 (1): 139–144. doi:10.2307/217977. JSTOR217977. PMID11617203.
^Bourgeois-Doyle, Richard I. Her Daughter the Engineer: The Life of Elsie Gregory MacGill. Ottawa: NRC Research Press, 2008. ISBN978-0-660-19813-2., p. 64.
^"The University of Cambridge: Epilogue (1939–56)". A History of the County of Cambridge and the Isle of Ely: Volume 3, the City and University of Cambridge. Victoria County History. 1959. pp. 307–312. Archived from the original on 2016-09-13.
^Hill, Professor Elizabeth. A. & C. Black Ltd. p. 1416.
^Zinsser, Judith P. (1990). "The United Nations Decade for Women: A Quiet Revolution". The History Teacher. 24 (1): 19–29. doi:10.2307/494202. ISSN0018-2745. JSTOR494202.
.jpg)
