State and international organisation representatives
Thematic institutions
Relatives of World War I veterans
The centenary of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 was an international series of events marking the 100th anniversary in 2018 of the armistice which ended World War I. It concluded the series of commemorations marking the wider First World War centenary beginning in 2014. This date was marked by numerous events in conjunction with the concurrent annual memorial days of Armistice Day, Remembrance Day (in Commonwealth countries) and Veterans Day (in the United States), and as part of commissions established for the purposes of marking the four year centenary of the First World War.
Commemorations in France were led by president Emmanuel Macron, and included an international ceremony in Paris which attracted many world leaders, in addition to the first Paris Peace Forum. In London, a service of thanksgiving was hosted at Westminster Abbey, with a German representative (president Frank-Walter Steinmeier) invited to participate in the annual National Service of Remembrance for the first time. Other military ceremonies and events were organised elsewhere throughout the United Kingdom and in key members of the Commonwealth which participated in the war, and across the world.
Formal peace negotiations only took place during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and 1920. With three extensions to the armistice having already been made, a state of peace was ratified with a series of treaties between the Allies and the former Central Powers, beginning with the Treaty of Versailles on 10 January 1920.[2][3]
Following the end of the war, 11 November was designated a memorial day initially dedicated to the anniversary of the armistice and the military dead of World War I, known as Armistice Day. The first such observance took place in 1919.[4] Following World War II, it was renamed under different titles in several countries (e.g. Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth and Veterans Day in the United States).
Grande halle de la Villette (venue of the Paris Peace Forum)
The official programme for the centenary was announced on 18 September 2018, during a press conference hosted by education minister Jean-Michel Blanquer and Geneviève Darrieussecq, secretary of state to the Minister of the Armed Forces.[6] It included an international ceremony at the Arc de Triomphe followed by the inaugural edition of the newly founded Paris Peace Forum, plans which were already mentioned by French President Emmanuel Macron in a speech published in July.[7] The government's Mission Centenaire committee was responsible for the organisation of the events.[6]
Timeline
Before 11 November
On 4 November, Macron and his spouse Brigitte Macron hosted German president Frank-Walter Steinmeier at the Strasbourg Cathedral. Following a military ceremony, they attended a concert inside, conducted by the orchestra of the Académie supérieure de Strasbourg.[8] The flags of France, the European Union and Germany were hoisted outside the cathedral.[9][10]
On 6 November, Macron announced that writer Maurice Genevoix, author of numerous books on the First World War, would be posthumously listed on the Panthéon in 2019, alongside fourteen other French civilians and soldiers who participated in World War I.[11] Separately, he opened a memorial for fallen colonial soldiers in Reims in a joint ceremony with Malian president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta.[12] Throughout the course of the week, Macron visited symbolic Western Front locations across eleven departments in the north and east of the country.[10][13] The visits were the subject of anger from local voters over what the Financial Times described as his "perceived metropolitan disregard for their pocketbook concerns."[14]
On 10 November, invited international guests to the Arc de Triomphe ceremony, including German chancellor Angela Merkel, began arriving in Paris. Around 10,000 police officers, gendarmes and soldiers were placed on duty in the lead up to the events.[15] Merkel visited the Glade of the Armistice at Compiègne alongside Macron, where they laid a wreath, unveiled a plaque dedicated to Franco-German reconciliation and signed a book of remembrance in a replica of the railway carriage where the armistice was signed. The visit was symbolic as it marked the first time that French and German leaders had visited the site since 1945.[16][17] An official reception dinner for invited guests took place in the evening at the Musée d'Orsay.[18]
11 November
The building of the prefecture of Charente-Maritime, lit in the colours of the French flag to mark the centenary
At 11 am (CET), bells across France rang simultaneously to mark a century since World War I ended, including at Notre-Dame de Paris and at churches in overseas France.[19][20] Guests for the international ceremony had been received by Macron at the Élysée Palace in the morning before departing in unison.[21]
The commemoration began shortly after 11 am, following a presidential inspection of troops, a roll call of French soldiers killed in the preceding year and an army choir rendition of the French national anthem.[22][23][24][25] The event included a performance by cellist Yo-Yo Ma, who played the sarabande from Bach's Suite No. 5 in C minor. A group of testimonies dating to 11 November 1918 were read out by a group of teenage students in between, after which Ma performed the second movement of Ravel's Sonata for Violin and Cello with French violinist Renaud Capuçon.[26] Beninese musician Angélique Kidjo sang a variation of the song Blewu by Bella Bellow, paying tribute to colonial troops.[27][28] Macron delivered a keynote speech in which he denounced nationalism as a "betrayal of patriotism", and warned of the resurgence of "old demons".[29][23] The European Union Youth Orchestra followed with a performance of Ravel's Bolero.[30] The end of the ceremony included a rekindling of the Tomb to the Unknown Soldier, where Macron also laid a wreath, culminating in the "Sonnerie aux morts" and a moment of silence, followed by the "Cessez-le-feu" bugle call.[31][21]
Marshal Pétain, when he led France during the Second World War, was complicit in profound crimes which were recognized, and the responsibility of the French state was recognized. [...] I forgive nothing, but I erase nothing from our history.
In October 2018, it was reported that tributes to World War I marshals at the Hôtel des Invalides would include one to Philippe Pétain, who served in the Battle of Verdun and later headed Nazi-aligned Vichy France. It resulted in criticism from French Jews, the opposition and on social media.[39] In response, the office of the Élysée said it was not part of their official schedule and did not understand how Pétain "ended up" on the list.[40] Macron in particular described Pétain as a "great soldier", while remarking that he made "disastrous choices" during the Nazi occupation of France.[14] This tribute was eventually withdrawn.[39]
A planned visit by Trump to the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and Memorial, scheduled for 10 November, was cancelled due to what the White House termed "bad weather".[41] The decision was met with criticism, particularly from former Obama national security advisor Ben Rhodes; British Conservative politician Nicholas Soames, a grandson of Winston Churchill; and former secretary of state John Kerry.[42][43][44] A later article by The Atlantic surfacing in 2020 said Trump had refused to attend and also described the cemetery as being "filled with losers". He subsequently described the report as "fake news".[45][46]
Three Femen members staged a protest at the Arc de Triomphe on the morning of 10 November welcoming "war criminals", and were arrested by French police.[47][48] In a later statement, the feminist activist group listed Trump, Russian president Vladimir Putin, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan as examples of this description, along with Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Salman, who was not invited.[49] Femen also claimed responsibility for an incident on the day of the ceremony in which the motorcade carrying Trump passed by a topless woman who ran towards it and was then dragged out by French police.[50] Anti-Trump demonstrations were held at the Place de la République in response to the US president's visit.[51]
The seating arrangement caused a major controversy in Serbia. As the Serbian army had a pivotal role in forcing both Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary out of the war, with Serbia itself having the most extensive casualties compared to its population number and a historical friendship with France, the positioning of Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić away from the frontline seating areas in place of representatives of countries which were on the opposing side in the war or didn't even exist as separate states at the time, was taken as an insult in Serbia.[52][53][54]
Dignitaries
World leaders and dignitaries during the ceremony
The Paris commemorations were attended by over 120 foreign dignitaries, including 72 heads of state and government and representatives of several international organisations.[6][55] The French presidential office said it had invited representatives only from countries "which sent troops or workers to the European theaters of war".[56]
During the commemorations, Macron held a bilateral meeting with Trump at the Élysée Palace, which took place a day after Trump tweeted that "Europe should first pay its fair share" of NATO defence expenditures in response to the former's suggestions for a continental European army.[57][58] A similar meeting was planned between Trump and Putin, but it was ultimately scrapped due to the forthcoming G20 Buenos Aires summit.[59][60][61]Justin Trudeau, the prime minister of Canada, participated in separate commemorations at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in northern France.[62]
Trump, Putin and Netanyahu opted for their own transportation to the venue of the ceremony on 11 November, due to security concerns.[21][32][63]
The government of the United Kingdom announced that it would allocate a £19 million package to mark the centenary, with an additional £10 million being added to the annual budget made to the Armed Forces Covenant Fund Trust,[85] while individual local events were coordinated by the Imperial War Museum.[86] The BBC planned a week-long series of dedicated programming across its platforms, as part of its World War I centenary season.[87]
Timeline
Before 11 November
Beginning on 5 November, 10,000 torches were lit in the moat of the Tower of London, in an artistic exhibition entitled Beyond the Deepening Shadow which would repeat nightly until Armistice Day (11 November).[88] The Shrouds of the Somme, designed by artist Rob Heard and comprising 72,396 shrouded figures representing all servicemen from the British Commonwealth with no known grave, was laid out at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, being on display from 8 to 18 November 2018.[89][90]
Members of the public during a service in Sheffield
As Remembrance Sunday in 2018 fell on 11 November, the National Service of Remembrance was held concurrently with other commemorative events in Europe. The service at the Cenotaph in London began at 11 am (GMT), with a two-minute silence being observed, after which the Prince of Wales then laid the first wreath on behalf of the Queen.[83][93] Thousands were able to pay respect to relatives and soldiers killed in the war during a march past the memorial.[94] Despite ongoing renovations, the Big Ben rang eleven times at 12:30 GMT.[95][96]
German president Frank-Walter Steinmeier was invited to attend as a special guest, becoming the first German leader to lay a wreath at the Cenotaph.[29] The invitation was reportedly planned as early as September 2018.[97] The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport described his presence as "a symbol of the friendship that exists between the two countries today".[93] A memorial service was held in the evening at Westminster Abbey, which was attended by members of the royal family and Prime Minister Theresa May. During the service, Steinmeier read out a passage from 1 St John 4:7–11 in German.[29]
In Australia, a Remembrance Day service was held at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, alongside a national minute of silence in remembrance of Australian soldiers who fought and died in overseas conflicts. Prime Minister Scott Morrison addressed a crowd of more than 12,000 attending the ceremony. An extension of the Anzac Memorial in Sydney was opened to the public for the occasion.[102][103] In addition, over a thousand people attended a commemoration at the Australian National Memorial in the French town of Villers-Bretonneux.[102]
In New Zealand, a national service took place at the Pukeahu National War Memorial Park in Wellington, which was organised as part of the wider New Zealand WW100 commemorations. A 100-gun salute was held at the Wellington waterfront, and two minutes of silence were observed at 11 am (NZDT), followed by a cacophony of noise replicating how the public initially reacted to the news of the armistice a century prior. Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern gave speeches at the event.[104][105][106]
Memorial services were held across South Africa, including a ceremony at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and the annual National Civic Remembrance Service in Johannesburg.[107]
In India, a memorial service was held at the Delhi War Cemetery, where Indian and British delegates laid wreaths. Conservative MP Tom Tugendhat led the British delegation and was joined by Sir Dominic Asquith, British High Commissioner to India, and defence attaché Brigadier Mark Goldsack.[108] In a series of tweets, Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to Indian troops and pledged to "further an atmosphere of harmony and brotherhood".[109][110]
In Ghana, a luncheon was organised by the British High Commission and the Ghanaian government on the occasion of Remembrance Day. On the same day, president Nana Akufo-Addo and a group of ex-servicemen observed a two-minute silence.[111][112] Earlier, Akufo-Addo participated in a wreath-laying ceremony on 2 November at the Christiansborg War Cemetery in Accra, along with Prince Charles, his wife Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, and Prince Edward, who were touring the country at the time.[113]
Ceremonies in Kenya and Zambia were scheduled for 25 November 2018; German forces fighting in Northern Rhodesia only received news of the armistice on 14 November 1918, three days after it had already came into effect, and eventually surrendered later that month.[114][115] In Voi, the Commonwealth War Cemetery hosted a small ceremony, which was attended by British and German diplomats; a Kenyan army bugler played the Last Post during the ceremony, and wreaths were laid by a Kenyan general and some local and international visitors.[116] The Zambian government sponsored a centenary event in the town of Mbala organised by the national tourism agency, saying that attraction to the region would unlock the "tourism and investment potential of Northern Province".[115][117]
Other locations
In addition to the locations listed below, memorial services also took place in Myanmar and Russia.[29]
National commemorations were held in the capital of Brussels. In an address, King Philippe pledged to keep "the memory of those who sacrificed themselves for us and the values for which they fought", and to "engage together in building a world of peace." A dove and 11 pigeons were released during the memorial service.[118] In Ypres, a series of tributes to Commonwealth veterans was attended by the minister-president of Flanders, Geert Bourgeois.[119] The Last Post, traditionally performed nightly at the Menin Gate since 1928, was additionally played at 11 am (CET) to mark the centenary.[119]
Public memorisation was muted, mainly owing to the defeat of the German Empire and the chronology of events resulting from the aftermath of the war.[123] Some events were privately organised, including a religious service at the Berlin Cathedral, and an exhibition showcasing works by 31 international artists representing countries involved in WWI peace negotiations.[124][c]
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong and China branch of the Royal British Legion and the Hong Kong Veterans Federation organised a public wreath-laying ceremony at the Cenotaph, which was attended by local dignitaries, international envoys, veterans, and representatives of religious groups and youth uniform teams. A two-minute silence was observed at 11 am (HKT).[125][29]
Hungary
The Hungarian National Bank released a series of commemorative collector coins on 16 October 2018, which included a silver variant with a face value of 10,000 HUF and a non-ferrous metal variant with a fifth (2,000 HUF) of the face value.[126]
Ireland
A service was held at Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin. It was attended by president Michael D. Higgins, on the same day of his scheduled inauguration for a second term, along with representatives of at least 47 countries. The Last Post was played during the ceremony.[127][128]
President Donald Trump proposed that a military parade at the Capitol be held on 10 November to mark the centenary, in admiration of France's Bastille Day military parade (which Trump attended as a guest in 2017). However, Trump cancelled the proposed event in August 2018 over cost concerns, with estimates that the parade would have cost as much as US$92 million.[140][141][142]
Vatican City
In remarks made during a weekly Angelus address, Pope Francis appealed for a rejection of a "culture of war", quoting Benedict XV, who served as pope during the majority of the First World War, and reflecting on the occasion of St. Martin's Day, which also fell on 11 November. The bells at St. Peter's Basilica were tolled in the afternoon in unison with other church bells across Europe.[143]
^"99 państw świętuje zakończenie I wojny światowej" [99 countries celebrate the end of World War I]. Interia (in Polish). 11 November 2018. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022. Na czele polskiej delegacji stał minister spraw zagranicznych Jacek Czaputowicz. [The Polish delegation was headed by Minister of Foreign Affairs Jacek Czaputowicz.]
^曾雪雯 (11 November 2018). "【一戰停戰一世紀．圖輯】退伍軍人辦獻花活動 紀念碑靜默兩分鐘" [(A century after the armistice of World War I. Photo Album) Veterans organize flower laying event and observe two minutes of silence at the monument] (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). 香港01. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2024.
^"The Latest: Leaders discuss Ukraine elections at Paris meet". Associated Press News. 12 November 2018. Archived from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2023. Ambassadors, Romanian army officers and others laid wreaths at a war memorial as Romania marked the end of World War I a century ago.
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