在西方史學中提到鄂圖曼帝國衰弱的第一個參考文獻可在迪米特里耶·坎泰米爾[17]在1717年完成,並在1734年被翻譯成英文的《鄂圖曼宮廷之增減》(拉丁語:Incrementa atque decrementa aulae othomanicae)中看到。[18]後來接受其觀念的是19世紀的約瑟夫·馮·哈默-普格斯德(英语:Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall)[19],他因為知曉鄂圖曼土耳其文,並直接接受了納西哈特作家的說法,因此,後來人們認為其衰弱勢解釋鄂圖曼帝國對外軍事失利的適當手段,同時為歐洲帝國主義作為擋箭牌。[20]是以,鄂圖曼帝國/伊斯蘭文明的衰弱之概念成了西方文明的陪襯品,並以「頹廢消極」的鄂圖曼帝國與「充滿活力」的西方世界成鮮明對比;同樣的,伊斯蘭教(作為一個包羅萬象的文明範疇來看)經常被描述為與西方大相逕庭的東西:西方社會看重的是自由、理性、進步,伊斯蘭世界看中的則是奴性、迷信與原地踏步。[21]此論點持續延燒至20世紀中葉,尤其是在H·A·R·吉布、哈羅德·鮑文與伯納德·劉易斯的作品,他們堅持伊斯蘭衰落的文明概念,同時用現代化理論的新社會學範式對其進行修改。[22]
撇開衰弱論來講,現今的鄂圖曼帝國歷史學家最常將後蘇萊曼時期(廣泛來說是1550-1700年之間)稱之為轉型時期(英语:Transformation of the Ottoman Empir)。[86][87]定義該時期的經濟與政治危機之作用相當重要,因為他證明了鄂圖曼帝國最終得以生存並適應瞬息萬變的世界[88][89];鄂圖曼帝國在與他國進行比較方面(以同時期歐洲為主)之地位也愈發受到重視:當鄂圖曼人遭受嚴重的經濟與政治衰退之時,歐洲地區也發生了相差無幾的情況──這一時期經常被稱為「17世紀大危機時期(英语:The General Crisis)」[90]──是以他是包含了鄂圖曼帝國,乃至歐洲與地中海地區都曾面臨過的總體趨勢之一部分。[91][92]用埃胡德·托萊達諾(英语:Ehud R. Toledano)的話道:「在歐洲與鄂圖曼帝國,這些變化改變了國家及軍事行政精英發動、資助戰爭的方式以應對這些巨大挑戰,並透過社會經濟和政治變革來找到相對應之措施,這就是實際上的17-18世紀之鄂圖曼帝國歷史。其主要特點是對新現實的顯著適應,而非衰弱、瓦解;它反映了鄂圖曼軍事行政精英在思想與行動上的足智多謀、務實和靈活,而不是他們的無能或迂腐。[93]」是以,根據達納·薩迪的說法:「無論人們如何看待這個個別修正主義作品,或者特定方式與框架,學術的累積效應已經證明了衰落論的經驗與理論均為無效,並提供了一個鄂圖曼國家的內部動態和社會的寫照。它還確立了鄂圖曼帝國與其他(歐洲為主)的社會和政體之可比性,同時修訂了現有的分期方案。」[94]
^ 1.01.1Hathaway, Jane. The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd. 2008: 7–8. ISBN 978-0-582-41899-8. One of the most momentous changes to have occurred in Ottoman studies since the publication of Egypt and the Fertile Crescent [1966] is the deconstruction of the so-called 'Ottoman decline thesis' – that is, the notion that toward the end of the sixteenth century, following the reign of Sultan Suleyman I (1520–66), the empire entered a lengthy decline from which it never truly recovered, despite heroic attempts at westernizing reforms in the nineteenth century. Over the last twenty years or so, as Chapter 4 will point out, historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favour of one of crisis and adaptation
Kunt, Metin. Introduction to Part I. Kunt, Metin; Christine Woodhead (编). Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. London and New York: Longman. 1995: 37–38. students of Ottoman history have learned better than to discuss a "decline" which supposedly began during the reigns of Süleyman's "ineffectual" successors and then continued for centuries.
Tezcan, Baki. The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period. Cambridge University Press. 2010: 9. ISBN 978-1-107-41144-9. Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.
Woodhead, Christine. Introduction. Christine Woodhead (编). The Ottoman World. 2011: 5. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7. Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'
Ehud Toledano. The Arabic-speaking world in the Ottoman period: A socio-political analysis. Woodhead, Christine (编). The Ottoman World. Routledge. 2011: 457. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7. In the scholarly literature produced by Ottomanists since the mid-1970s, the hitherto prevailing view of Ottoman decline has been effectively debunked.
Leslie Peirce, "Changing Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire: the Early Centuries," Mediterranean Historical Review 19/1 (2004): 22.
Cemal Kafadar, "The Question of Ottoman Decline," Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 4/1–2 (1997–98), pp. 30–75.
M. Fatih Çalışır, "Decline of a 'Myth': Perspectives on the Ottoman 'Decline'," The History School 9 (2011): 37–60.
Donald Quataert, "Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline,'" History Compass 1 (2003)
^Linda Darling, Revenue Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996), [1].
Günhan Börekçi, "Factions and Favorites at the Courts of Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) and His Immediate Predecessors," PhD dissertation (The Ohio State University, 2010), 5.
^Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It (I. B. Tauris, 2004; 2011), pp. 42–43.
Virginia Aksan, "Ottoman to Turk: Continuity and Change," International Journal 61 (Winter 2005/6): 19–38.
^Howard, Douglas A. "Genre and myth in the Ottoman advice for kings literature," in Aksan, Virginia H. and Daniel Goffman eds. The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2007; 2009), 143.
Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, pp. 3–4.
Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State Centralization, (Cornell University Press, 1994), ix.
^Finkel, Caroline. The Administration of Warfare: The Ottoman Military Campaigns in Hungary, 1593–1606. Vienna: VWGÖ. 1988: 143. ISBN 3-85369-708-9.
^Kunt, Metin. Introduction to Part I. Kunt, Metin; Christine Woodhead (编). Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. London and New York: Longman. 1995: 37–38. students of Ottoman history have learned better than to discuss a "decline" which supposedly began during the reigns of Süleyman's "ineffectual" successors and then continued for centuries.
^Ehud Toledano. The Arabic-speaking world in the Ottoman period: A socio-political analysis. Woodhead, Christine (编). The Ottoman World. Routledge. 2011: 457. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7. In the scholarly literature produced by Ottomanists since the mid-1970s, the hitherto prevailing view of Ottoman decline has been effectively debunked. However, only too often, the results of painstaking research and innovative revisions offered in that literature have not yet percolated down to scholars working outside Ottoman studies. Historians in adjacent fields have tended to rely on earlier classics and later uninformed surveys which perpetuate older, now deconstructed, views.
^Dana Sajdi refers on the one hand to nationalists in post-Ottoman regions of the world, and on the other, to the supporters of imperialistic intervention in the Middle East among some politicians in the West. Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 38–9.
^Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy, pp. 283–84.
^Cornell Fleischer. Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Âli, 1541–1600, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
^Douglas Howard, "Ottoman Historiography and the Literature of 'Decline' of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century," Journal of Asian History 22 (1988), pp. 52–77.
^Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, pp. 20–40.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 4–6.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 6.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 5.
^Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy, pp. 4–5.
^ 32.032.1Hathaway, "Problems of Periodization," 26.
^Ehud Toledano. The Arabic-speaking world in the Ottoman period: A socio-political analysis. Woodhead, Christine (编). The Ottoman World. Routledge. 2011: 457. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7.
^Douglas Howard, "Ottoman Historiography," pp. 52–77.
^Abou-El-Haj, Formation of the Modern State, pp. 23–26.
^Cemal Kafadar, "The Myth of the Golden Age: Ottoman Historical Consciousness in the post-Süleymanic Era," in Süleyman the Second [sic] and His Time, eds. Halil İnalcık and Cemal Kafadar (Istanbul: ISIS Press, 1993), pp. 44.
^Rhoads Murphey, "The Veliyüddin Telhis: Notes on the Sources and Interrelations between Koçu Bey and Contemporary Writers of Advice to Kings," Belleten 43 (1979), pp. 547–571.
^Pál Fodor, "State and Society, Crisis and Reform, in a 15th–17th Century Ottoman Mirror for Princes," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 40 (1986), pp. 217–240.
^Cemal Kafadar, "On the Purity and Corruption of the Janissaries," Turkish Studies Association Bulletin 15 (1991): 273–280.
^Günhan Börekçi, "A Contribution to the Military Revolution Debate: The Janissaries' Use of Volley Fire During the Long Ottoman-Habsburg War of 1593–1606 and the Problem of Origins." Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 59 (2006): 407–438.
^Metin Kunt, The Sultan's Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983) 98.
^Ariel Salzmann, "The Old Regime and the Ottoman Middle East," in Christine Woodhead eds. The Ottoman World, (Routledge, 2011), 412.
^Halil İnalcık, "Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire, 1600–1700," Archivum Ottomanicum 6 (1980): 283–337.
^Gábor Ágoston, "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". Journal of World History.' 25 (2014): 123.
^Jonathan Grant, "Rethinking the Ottoman "Decline": Military Technology Diffusion in the Ottoman Empire, Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries." Journal of World History 10 (1999): 179–201.
^Gábor Ágoston, "Ottoman Artillery and European Military Technology in the Fifteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 47/1–2 (1994): 15–48.
^Gábor Ágoston, Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) pp. 195–98.
^Rhoads Murphey, Ottoman Warfare: 1500–1700, (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999), 10.
^Aksan, Virginia. Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Ltd. 2007: 130–5. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
Woodhead, Christine. New Views on Ottoman History, 1453–1839. The English Historical Review (Oxford University Press). 2008, 123: 983. the Ottomans were able largely to maintain military parity until taken by surprise both on land and at sea in the Russian war from 1768 to 1774.
^Quataert, Donald. Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline'. History Compass. 2003, 1: 2. doi:10.1111/1478-0542.038.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 12–4.
^Quataert, Donald. Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline'. History Compass. 2003, 1: 5–6. doi:10.1111/1478-0542.038.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 15.
^Quataert, Donald. Ottoman History Writing and Changing Attitudes towards the Notion of 'Decline'. History Compass. 2003, 1: 5. doi:10.1111/1478-0542.038.
^Pamuk, Şevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000: xx.
Pamuk, Şevket. Crisis and Recovery: The Ottoman Monetary System in the Early Modern Era, 1550-1789. Dennis O. Flynn; Arturo Giráldez; Richard von Glahn (编). Global Connections and Monetary History, 1470-1800. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2003: 140. the eighteenth century until the 1780s was a period of commercial and economic expansion coupled with fiscal stability.
^Levi, Scott C. Objects in Motion. Douglas Northrop (编). A Companion to World History. Wiley Blackwell. 2014: 331.
^Prakash, Om. Precious-metal Flows into India in the Early Modern Period. Dennis O. Flynn; Arturo Giráldez; Richard von Glahn (编). Global Connections and Monetary History, 1470-1800. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2003: 154.
^Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change," 507; Jane Hathaway, "The Ottomans and the Yemeni Coffee Trade," Oriente Moderno 25 (2006): 161–171.
^Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy, pp. 299–306.
^Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy, pp. 81–118.
^Michael Ursinus, "The Transformation of the Ottoman Fiscal Regime, c. 1600–1850," in Christine Woodhead eds. The Ottoman World, (Routledge, 2011) 423–434.
^Carter Vaughn Findley, "Political culture and the great households", in Suraiya Faroqhi eds., The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839, volume 3 of The Cambridge History of Turkey. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 66.
^Geoffrey Parker, Global Crisis: War, Climate Change & Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013)
^Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy, pp. 8–10.
^Ursinus, "The Transformation of the Ottoman Fiscal Regime," 423.
^Ehud Toledano. The Arabic-speaking world in the Ottoman period: A socio-political analysis. Woodhead, Christine (编). The Ottoman World. Routledge. 2011: 459. ISBN 978-0-415-44492-7.
^Sajdi, Dana. Decline, its Discontents, and Ottoman Cultural History: By Way of Introduction. Sajdi, Dana (编). Ottoman Tulips, Ottoman Coffee: Leisure and Lifestyle in the Eighteenth Century. London: I.B. Taurus. 2007: 27.
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