19世紀晚期邊際效用學派興起,這個學派以英國經濟學家傑文斯、奧地利經濟學家門格爾和法國經濟學家瓦爾拉斯爲首。他們理論的共同點是價格是由生產決策的邊際價格決定。這是自從亞當·斯密關於如何決定供給價格的思想以來一個非常重要的改變。1870年作者弗萊明·詹金(Fleeming Jenkin)首先在論文裏繪出第一條供給曲線和需求曲線[17],包括使用比較靜態的辦法研究供給和需求在勞動市場的應用[18] 。這個模型後來被馬歇爾在其1890年的教科書著作《經濟學原理》(Principles of Economics)進一步發展及普及[16]。
^Hacking, Ian. 1983. Representing and Intervening. Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press
^von Neumann, J. (1995), "Method in the physical sciences", in Bródy F., Vámos, T. (editors), The Neumann Compendium, World Scientific, p. 628; previously published in The Unity of Knowledge, edited by L. Leary (1955), pp. 157-164, and also in John von Neumann Collected Works, edited by A. Taub, Volume VI, pp. 491-498.
^Frigg and Hartmann (2009) state: "Philosophers are acknowledging the importance of models with increasing attention and are probing the assorted roles that models play in scientific practice". Source: Frigg, Roman and Hartmann, Stephan, "Models in Science", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), (source (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆))
^Tolk, A. (2015). Learning something right from models that are wrong – Epistemology of Simulation. In Yilmaz, L. (Ed.) Concepts and Methodologies in Modeling and Simulation. Springer–Verlag. pp. 87–106
^Oberkampf, W. L., DeLand, S. M., Rutherford, B. M., Diegert, K. V., & Alvin, K. F. (2002). Error and uncertainty in modeling and simulation. Reliability Engineering & System Safety 75(3): 333–57.
^Ihrig, M. (2012). A New Research Architecture For The Simulation Era. In European Council on Modelling and Simulation. pp. 715–20).
^Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Feldman, M. W. (1981). Cultural transmission and evolution: A quantitative approach (No. 16). Princeton University Press.
^Bird, Alexander. Edward N. Zalta , 编. §4.1 Methodological Incommensurability. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition). Aug 11, 2011 [2020-06-18]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-25).
^ 16.016.1Thomas M. Humphrey, 1992. "Marshallian Cross Diagrams and Their Uses before Alfred Marshall," Economic Review, Mar/Apr, Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, pp. 3-23. (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
^A.D. Brownlie and M. F. Lloyd Prichard, 1963. "Professor Fleeming Jenkin, 1833-1885 Pioneer in Engineering and Political Economy," Oxford Economic Papers, NS, 15(3), p. 211.
^Fleeming Jenkin, 1870. "The Graphical Representation of the Laws of Supply and Demand, and their Application to Labour," in Alexander Grant, ed., Recess Studies, Edinburgh. ch. VI, pp. 151-85. Edinburgh. Scroll to chapter link. (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
^Schelling, T. C. (1971). Dynamic models of segregation. Journal of mathematical sociology, 1(2), 143-186.
^Mesly, Olivier (2015). Creating Models in Psychological Research. United States: Springer Psychology: 126 pages. ISBN978-3-319-15752-8
^Chang, Y. C. A Knowledge Representation Method to Implement A Taiwanese Tone Group Parser [In Chinese]. International Journal of Computational Linguistics & Chinese Language Processing. 2017, 22 (212): 73–86.