沙姆解放組織 (阿拉伯语:هيئة تحرير الشام ,羅馬化 :Hayʼat Taḥrīr aš-Šām ,直译 : 黎凡特解放組織,HTS),是叙利亚内战 中一個活躍的武裝團體,於2017年1月28日由征服沙姆陣線 與其它一些反政府武裝團體合併而成[ 34] 。沙姆解放組織在成立初期有31,000人兵力,其中約18,000人來自征服沙姆陣線[ 10] ,其後有更多團體加入沙姆解放組織,兵力增加至50,000人[ 35] ,一些評論員認為沙姆解放組織是現時敘利亞境內單一最大的反巴沙爾政府武裝團體[ 36] 。
原征服沙姆陣線頭目阿布·穆罕默德·約拉尼擔任沙姆解放組織的軍事領導人[ 37] 。沙姆解放組織與征服沙姆陣線關係密切,而伊朗 政府則宣稱卡塔尔 和沙特阿拉伯 支援沙姆解放組織。[ 38] 2024年12月2日,沙姆解放組織在2024年西北敘利亞戰役 中佔領了阿勒坡 。[ 39] 同年12月8日,組織攻陷敘利亞首都大馬士革 ,推翻敘利亞總統 巴沙爾·阿薩德 的政權 。[ 40] [ 41] 时至今日,该组织仍被联合国安理会第 2254 号决议 列为恐怖 组织。 [ 42]
認定該組織為恐怖組織的定義國及定義日期
HTS 被美国、欧盟 、俄罗斯 、英国 、加拿大 和其他一些国家指定为恐怖组织。 [ 49] 美国驻叙利亚大使馆于2012年2月暂停运作,并于2017年5月证实,HTS于2017年3月被指定为恐怖组织 。美国国务院发言人进一步表示,正在对 HTS 的内部机制进行审查,以“仔细分析这一问题”。 [ 50] 2018 年 5 月,美国国务院 正式将 HTS 列入“外国恐怖组织 ”(FTO)名单。 [ 51] [ 52] 2023 年 6 月,美国正式确认 HTS 领导人朱拉尼 已于 2016 年切断与基地组织的联系,同时对已知为 HTS 提供资金的个人实施制裁。其中包括 HTS议会成员阿布·艾哈迈德· 扎库尔 (Abu Ahmed Zakour)。 [ 53]
2018 年 5 月 23 日,加拿大 将HTS指定为恐怖组织。 [ 54]
2018 年 8 月,土耳其 将HTS指定为恐怖组织。 [ 55] 尽管如此,土耳其军队 仍与 HTS 进行战略合作,视其为打击基地组织和伊斯兰国残余势力重要盟友。由于HTS因其保卫伊德利卜 免受复兴党政权的 统治而巩固政权的目標,成为了由土耳其斡旋的多项停火协议的一方。 在2020 年 3 月停火协议达成后,HTS 重点转向消灭伊德利卜的独立民兵和强硬派圣战派别。HTS在数周之内成功摧毁所有基地组织网络,并制服或吸纳其他反对派系,取得对伊德利卜的绝对控制权。 [ 56]
阿萨德政权垮台 后,英国广播公司新闻报道 称,英国政府可能将 HTS 从恐怖组织名单里删除;[ 57] 联合国叙利亚问题特使盖尔·奥托·佩德森 (Geir Otto Pedersen)向《金融时报》 表示,国际社会需要考虑取消针对叙利亚的制裁。 [ 58]
侵犯人权和战争罪指控
尽管 HTS 竭力与基地组织划清界限,透过叙利亚救国政府把自己展现为合法管理机构,但联合国、美国、欧盟和人权组织的报告显示,HTS 继续参与严重侵犯人权行为和战争罪行。 [ 59] [ 60] [ 61] [ 62] [ 63] [ 64] [ 65] [ 66] [ 67]
法外处决、任意逮捕和酷刑
HTS 实施法外处决、任意逮捕和强迫失踪。 [ 68] [ 69] 反对派、记者、异见人士以及被认为批评 HTS 的平民被非法拘留。 [ 69] HTS 管理的拘留设施中酷刑和虐待现象普遍存在,有记录显示 HTS 使用了至少 22 种酷刑手段,包括身体和心理虐待。 [ 70] 酷刑下获得的供词可作为 HTS 法庭的证据,而被拘留者没有法律途径对其监禁提出质疑。 [ 68] [ 70] [ 71] 2019 年,人权观察组织的 一份报告指责该组织在其控制区内对记录其暴行的当地人实施酷刑。 [ 72]
针对女性的歧视与暴力行为
HTS 对女性实施严格的宗教着装规定,及限制她们的行动自由和接受教育的机会。女性只有在男性亲属( mahram )的陪同下才可以旅行,违反者可能会被逮捕和惩罚。 [ 73] [ 74] 妇女面临普遍的歧视和暴力,包括任意拘留、羁押期间的性虐待,以及因“通奸”或“亵渎”等罪名被判处死刑。 [ 73] [ 75] 妇女还被剥夺了申请离婚的权利,被禁止在公共场合化妆和独居。 [ 73] [ 75] 报道指已婚女性(包括被迫童婚 的未成年女孩),被剥夺进入公立学校和大学的权利。 [ 76]
从事人道主义或媒体工作的女性反对派成员,尤其成为攻击目标。 [ 77] [ 78] 许多人被指控犯有叛国罪或其他罪名,并被以此为借口,迫使她们停止批评 HTS 的活动。 [ 78] HTS 还逮捕与敌对团体或反对派有家庭关系的妇女,以此作为获取筹码或强迫合作的策略。 [ 78] 女性被拘留者遭受有辱人格的待遇,包括隔离、威胁、缺乏医疗救治和虐待。 [ 77] [ 78]
强迫皈依和对宗教少数群体的歧视
尽管 HTS 自 2018 年起对外界宣称其就宗教少数群体持宽容态度,但美国国际宗教自由委员会 (USCIRF) 于2022年的报告发现:
HTS 继续针对宗教少数群体和持不同政见的逊尼派穆斯林,大规模侵犯宗教自由和人权。该组织强制皈依逊尼派伊斯兰教,系统性地没收基督徒和德鲁兹人的财产,禁止已婚女性接受教育。在 HTS 控制的地区,以捏造的宗教罪名进行任意逮捕、酷刑和处决的情况屡见不鲜,被拘留者经常遭受虐待,且得不到法律救济。 [ 79]
政治压迫
HTS 通过暴力镇压、任意逮捕和虐待批评者(包括记者、活动人士和平民),系统性地压制异见人士。 [ 80] [ 81] [ 82] 反对 HTS 的抗议活动很少被容忍,而且经常遭到暴力镇压。 [ 80] [ 82] 记者面临着重大风险,包括威胁、监禁和人身虐待,被迫逃离HTS控制地区。 [ 80] HTS 使用任意拘留和酷刑压制政治对手。 [ 80] [ 81] [ 82]
阻碍人道主义援助
HTS 严重阻碍其控制地区的人道主义援助,特别是境内流离失所者 。 [ 83] 叙利亚2023年人权报告指该组织对人道主义援助物资任意征税,干涉援助物资的分配。 [ 83] HTS 调节援助资金的流向,控制受助者选择,确保援助资金被用于自身利益。 [ 83]
剥削儿童
据美国国务院报告,HTS剥削儿童违反国际法,严重侵犯儿童权利 。报告显示,HTS 长期使用儿童作为人盾 、自杀式炸弹袭击者 、儿童兵 和刽子手 ,强迫他们在冲突中扮演暴力角色。 [ 84] [ 85] [ 86]
参见
參考文獻
^ 引用错误:没有为名为jaber
的参考文献提供内容
^ 2.0 2.1 Julani is a temporary leader of the "Liberation of the Sham" .. This is the fate of its former leader . HuffPost . 2017-10-02 [2017-10-02 ] . (原始内容 存档于2017-10-02).
^ Joscelyn, Thomas. Al Qaeda and allies announce 'new entity' in Syria . Long War Journal. Foundation for Defense of Democracies. 2017-01-28 [2017-01-29 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-05-29).
^ 引用错误:没有为名为war
的参考文献提供内容
^ A prominent Tahrir al-Sham commander killed in southern Idlib (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 ), Islamic World News
^ Aymen Jawad al-Tamimi. From Jabhat al-Nusra to Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham: Evolution, Approach and Future (PDF) . Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung and Al-Nahrain Center for Strategic Studies . 2018 [2018-07-19 ] . (原始内容存档 (PDF) 于2018-07-19).
^ Enab Baladi . Who Will Lead Idleb's New 'Salvation Government?' . Syrian Observer. 2017-11-09 [2019-08-21 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-08-21).
^ Studies, Middle East, politics, GCC, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Nuclear deal, Yemen, Trump, MENA, Turkey, Gulf Crisis, Qatar, Future for Advanced Research and. Cloning Chaos Why National Salvation Governments Fail in the Arab Region . مركز المستقبل. [2021-10-07 ] . (原始内容存档 于2020-12-04).
^ Ghanmi, Elyès; Punzet, Agnieszka. The involvement of Salafism/Wahhabism in the support and supply of arms to rebel groups around the world (PDF) . European Parliament . 2013-06-11 [2017-01-29 ] . (原始内容存档 (PDF) 于2019-06-24).
^ 10.0 10.1 Rida, Nazeer. Syria: Surfacing of 'Hai'at Tahrir al-Sham' Threatens Truce . Asharq Al-Awsat. 2017-01-30. (原始内容 存档于2017-02-15). 引用错误:带有name属性“surfacing”的<ref>
标签用不同内容定义了多次
^ Reality Check team. Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? . BBC News. 2019-06-22 [2019-07-25 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-07-27).
^ Joe Macaron. A confrontation in Idlib remains inevitable . Al-Jazeera. 2018-10-17 [2018-10-27 ] . (原始内容存档 于2018-10-27).
^ Zulfiqar Ali. Syria: Who's in control of Idlib? . BBC News. 2020-02-18 [2020-03-10 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-07-27).
^ Fraihat, Alijla; Ibrahim, Abdalhadi; Grant-Brook, William. The State in Idlib: Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham and Complexity Amid the Syrian Civil War. Rebel Governance in the Middle East. palgrave macmillan. 2023: 76. ISBN 978-981-99-1334-3 . S2CID 264040574 . doi:10.1007/978-981-99-1335-0 . HTS’s most important foreign relationship at present is with Ankara. HTS has a close relationship with its northern neighbour, allowing Turkish soldiers’ presence in Idlib to uphold an unstable stalemate with Assad’s forces.
^ Hamming, Tore. Jihadi Politics: The Global Jihadi Civil War, 2014–2019. London, UK: Hurst publishers. 2022: 48, 396. ISBN 9781787387027 . Ahrar al-Sham (and later HTS) established close relations with Turkey. ... In Syria, Turkey managed to establish close relations first with Ahrar al-Sham and subsequently with HTS.
^ Iddon, Paul. Are Turkey and the Islamist HTS group in Syria's Idlib allies? . ahvalnews.com. 2021-04-05. (原始内容 存档于2023-02-18).
^ Containing Transnational Jihadists in Syria's North West . International Crisis Group. 2023-03-07. (原始内容 存档于2023-03-07). ..HTS declared that only it or al-Fatah al-Mubin, which it leads together with Turkish-backed factions (though it is the dominant force), could conduct military operations in Idlib.
^ SNA factions, HTS clash over crossing in Syria's Jarabulus . npasyria.com. 2024-04-04.
^ Tahrir al-Sham tests Turkey over a strategic crossing; Ankara halts HTS greed . english.enabbaladi.net. 2024-04-04 [2024-04-03 ] . (原始内容存档 于2024-04-03).
^ Soylu, Ragip. Has Ukraine helped the Syrian rebel offensive in Aleppo? . Middle East Eye. 2 December 2024. (原始内容 存档于2 December 2024).
^ Ukrainian intelligence coordinating with Syrian rebels against 'mutual enemy', says opposition figure . The New Arab. 4 December 2024. (原始内容 存档于4 December 2024).
^ Tarkhan's Jamaat (Katiba İbad ar-Rahman) Fighting In Hama Alongside Muslim Shishani . Chechens in Syria. 2018-01-29 [2018-02-04 ] . (原始内容存档 于2018-02-04).
^ Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. The Factions of North Latakia . Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi. [2018-09-21 ] . (原始内容存档 于2018-09-21).
^ More Detailed Information & Interview With Newly-Formed Tatar Group Junud Al-Makhdi Whose Amir Trained In North Caucasus With Khattab . 2016-07-03 [2016-09-01 ] . (原始内容存档 于2016-09-06).
^ Foreign jihadists advertise role in Latakia fighting - The Long War Journal . [2016-09-01 ] . (原始内容存档 于2016-09-15).
^ Malhama Tactical, The Fanatics Tactical Guru! . The Firearm Blog. 2016-12-12 [2017-01-29 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-02-02).
^ Caleb Weiss. New Uighur jihadist group emerges in Syria . Long War Journal . 2018-01-18 [2018-01-19 ] . (原始内容存档 于2018-01-19).
^ correspondent, Bethan McKernan Middle East. Turkish soldiers killed as battle for control of Idlib escalates . 2020-02-03 [2021-10-07 ] . (原始内容存档 于2021-12-20) –通过www.theguardian.com.
^ #Syria, Homs – Div Liwa Rijal Allah joins Harakat Tahrir Homs . Yalla Souriya. 2016-04-09 [2018-02-24 ] . (原始内容存档 于2018-06-12).
^ The Moderate Rebels: A Growing List of Vetted Groups Fielding BGM-71 TOW Anti-Tank Guided Missiles . Hasan Mustafa. 2015-05-08 [2018-02-24 ] . (原始内容存档 于2016-06-02).
^ Idlib Faces a Fearsome Future: Islamist Rule or Mass Murder . [2019-09-22 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-09-20).
^ هجوم مباغت لهيئة تحرير الشام في ريف حلب يسفر عن مقتل 10 عناصر من ميليشيا النجباء العراقية . 2017-09-12 [2019-08-21 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-06-10).
^ Nour e-Din a-Zinki defects from HTS, citing unwillingness to end rebel infighting . Syria Direct . 2017-07-20 [2017-07-21 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-07-25).
^ Monitoring, B. B. C. Tahrir al-Sham: Al-Qaeda's latest incarnation in Syria . BBC. 2017-02-12 [2017-06-24 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-04-03).
^ Tomson, Chris. Islamist rebel group joins Al-Qaeda franchise in Syria . Al-Masdar News. 2017-05-21 [2017-05-21 ] . (原始内容存档 于2019-05-11).
^ Antonopoulos, Paul. FSA-affiliated group joins Al-Qaeda coalition; making it the largest militant group in Syria . Al-Masdar News. 2017-03-21 [2017-06-24 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-03-23).
^ Hay’at Tahrir al Sham leader calls for ‘unity’ in Syrian insurgency . Long War Journal. 2017-02-10 [2017-06-24 ] . (原始内容存档 于2017-02-16).
^ "Confrontation between Turkey, Saudi Arabia Root Cause of Tensions among Terrorist Groups in Syria (页面存档备份 ,存于互联网档案馆 )". Fars News Agency . 2017-02-09.
^ Ali Harb. Syria war updates: Rebels take control of Aleppo, igniting new phase of war . al jazeera. 2024-11-30 [2024-12-02 ] .
^ 敘利亞反政府武裝攻入大馬士革 巴沙爾據報已離國未知去向
^ Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham . Stanford University. (原始内容 存档于22 March 2023).
^ Lennon, Connor. The de facto authority in Syria is a designated terrorist group: What happens now? | UN News . UN News . 2024-12-12 [2024-12-15 ] (英语) .
^ Lister, Charles. US State Department declares that #HTS and all groups that merged into it are now considered Al-Qaeda & thus, HTS = a terrorist organization . 2017-03-11 [2018-09-04 ] . (原始内容 存档于2017-08-20).
^ United States Ambassador to Syria [@USEmbassySyria]. HTS is a merger and any group that merges into it becomes part of al-Qa'ida's Syrian network. #Syria (推文). 2017-05-15 –通过Twitter .
^ Government of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada. Canada Gazette, Part 2, Volume 152, Number 11: Regulations Amending the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities . gazette.gc.ca. 2018-05-30 [2018-07-22 ] . (原始内容 存档于2018-07-19).
^ Turkey designates Syria's Tahrir al-Sham as terrorist group . 2018-08-31 [2019-08-21 ] . (原始内容 存档于2019-05-29) –通过uk.reuters.com.
^ Charities warned that sending aid to Syria's Idlib could be a 'terror offence' . Middle East Eye. [2019-08-21 ] . (原始内容 存档于2019-08-14).
^ Единый федеральный список организаций, в том числе иностранных и международных организаций, признанных в соответствии с законодательством Российской Федерации террористическими :: Федеральная Служба Безопасности . www.fsb.ru. [2024-11-29 ] .
^ Syria – Country Focus (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2023-10-01 [2023-12-08 ] .
^ US denies reports Syria rebels Nusra off terror list . Al-Araby. 16 May 2017 [21 July 2017] . (原始内容 存档于16 August 2017).
^ Amendments to the Terrorist Designations of al-Nusrah Front . U.S. Department of State. 31 May 2018. (原始内容 存档于12 June 2021).
^ Ioanes, Ellen. Why the earthquake caused a 'perfect storm' of a crisis in Syria . Vox. 12 February 2023. (原始内容 存档于14 February 2023).
^ Y. Zelin, Aaron. Sanctioning a Syrian Jihadist Leader: Implications of a Joint U.S.–Turkish Designation . The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 2 June 2023. (原始内容 存档于3 June 2023).
^ Government of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada. Canada Gazette, Part 2, Volume 152, Number 11: Regulations Amending the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities . gazette.gc.ca. 30 May 2018 [22 July 2018] . (原始内容存档 于19 July 2018).
^ Turkey designates Syria's Tahrir al-Sham as terrorist group . Reuters. 31 August 2018 [21 August 2019] . (原始内容 存档于30 May 2019) –通过www.reuters.com.
^ Containing Transnational Jihadists in Syria's North West . International Crisis Group. 7 March 2023. (原始内容 存档于7 March 2023).
^ UK could remove Syrian rebel group from terror list . BBC News. (原始内容 存档于9 December 2024).
^ Saleh, Heba; Jalabi, Raya. Syrian rebels seek to consolidate control . Financial Times. 2024-12-09 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ Coutnry Guidance: Syria (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2024-04-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Syria - Country Focus (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2023-10-01 [2023-12-08 ] .
^ SNHR's 12th Annual Report on Violations Against Females in Syria (PDF) . Syrian Network for Human Rights. 2023-11-25 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Syria 2022 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2023-03-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Syria . United States Department of State. 2024-01-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF) . United Nations. 2024-08-12 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Religious Freedom in Syria Under Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) (PDF) . United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2022-11-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report: Syria . United States Department of State. 2024 [2024-12-10 ] .
^ 68.0 68.1 Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ 69.0 69.1 Coutnry Guidance: Syria (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2024-04-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 70.0 70.1 Syria 2022 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2023-03-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF) . United Nations. 2024-08-12 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Syria: Arrests, Torture by Armed Group . 28 January 2019.
^ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ Syria 2022 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2023-03-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 75.0 75.1 SNHR's 12th Annual Report on Violations Against Females in Syria (PDF) . Syrian Network for Human Rights. 2023-11-25 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Religious Freedom in Syria Under Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) (PDF) . United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2022-11-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 77.0 77.1 Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 SNHR's 12th Annual Report on Violations Against Females in Syria (PDF) . Syrian Network for Human Rights. 2023-11-25 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ Religious Freedom in Syria Under Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) (PDF) . United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2022-11-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ 81.0 81.1 Coutnry Guidance: Syria (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2024-04-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic (PDF) . United Nations. 2024-08-12 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 83.0 83.1 83.2 Syria 2023 Human Rights Report (PDF) . United States Department of State. 2024-03-01 [2024-12-08 ] .
^ Syria - Country Focus (PDF) . European Union Agency for Asylum. 2023-10-01 [2023-12-08 ] .
^ 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Syria . United States Department of State. 2024-01-01 [2024-12-09 ] .
^ 2024 Trafficking in Persons Report: Syria . United States Department of State. 2024 [2024-12-10 ] .