Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara can be found at Panthalayani Kollam near Quilandy, Thiruvaloor (on Periyar), Perunna near Changanassery, Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) and at Kollam.[7] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions of Rama Kulasekhara. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, a state-sponsored temple.[8] In 1102 AD, Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmin community.[8] An inscription dated to 1122 AD, found at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Tanjore (dated in the regnal year of king Vikrama Chola), also remembers Rama Kulasekhara.[7]
Kollam functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule (c. 1100/02 AD - c. 1122/23). According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".[9] There is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king.[10]
Career
Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1955, revised) point out that Chola ruler Kulottunga I oversaw only one expedition to the Chera Perumal kingdom (in c. 1097). Sastri had assumed that Kulottunga led two military thrusts to south Kerala in c. 1077-1081 and in c. 1097.[11]
Rama Kulasekhara came to the Chera Perumal throne in c. 1089/90.[1][12] Rama was the personal name and "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title.[13] The first record of the king - as "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" - is found in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple in northern Kerala.[14] Another inscription of "Kulasekhara Perumal" (1092 AD) can be found at the Thiruvaloor temple in the Periyar valley.[14] Port Vizhinjam in the Ay country was called "Rajendra Chola Pattinam" by Kulottunga I Chola in 1091 AD.[11]
Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign
Kulotunga Chola I coin with the legend "Malai Nadu Konda Chola"
Southern parts of Kerala (Venad and the Ay country), as far north as Kollam, again came under the Chola rule by 1097 AD.[11] This military thrust was probably conducted by "Chola-Pandya" ruler Jatavarman Srivallabha[15] or Chola general Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan for the Chola king Kulottunga I (1070–1120).[11] Records of this campaign mention, among other things, the "chaver" warriors in Kuda Malai Nadu (meaning Kerala here) ascending the "unique heaven" in battles, "the subduing of the numerous forces of the Keralas", "making the rebel vassal kings obedient", "victory over the bow emblem" and "the Chera king's retreat from the battle field".[11] A new era called "Kollam Azhintha Andu" was inaugurated by the Pandyas in 1097 AD.[15] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions from this period. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, an originally state-sponsored temple.[8] Earlier in 1099, Rama Kulasekhara, with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the Thrikkunnappuzha, is seen residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.[14]
Recovery of Kollam
It seems that the Chera Perumal managed to recover Kollam c. 1100/02 AD.[13][11] A possible major battle at Poonthura, near Vizhinjam, involving Mana Vikrama of Eranadu and his Nairs later known as "Poonthura Nairs", was instrumental in this recovery.[15] Cholas eventually fixed their boundary at Kottar (leaving the Venad and the Ay country to the Cheras).[11] We have a mention of a council attended by king Rama Kulasekhara and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon (the future Zamorin, "the first among the samanthas") at Kollam in 1102 AD. Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmins at this council.[8] The record was probably made in the aftermath of the recovery of Kollam.[15]
Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign
Later years of Rama Kulasekhara witnessed Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign (c. 1102–c. 1118 AD) against the Chera Perumals.[11] This expedition was probably conducted by the Pandya Jatavarman Parakrama.[11] Records mention the defeat of the Chera in a "single campaign" in Malai Nadu, the levying of tribute from the Chera king, and the capture of Venad and the Ay country by the Chola-Pandyas. The "Kupaka" (meaning Venad here) ruler also seems to have offered his daughter in marriage to Parakrama Pandya (Parakrama also visited the Anantapuram Temple during this period).[11]
A Tanjore inscription of Vikrama Chola mentions "the flight of the Chera king".[11] Rama Kulasekhara is also remembered in a Thiruvalanjuli inscription (1122 AD) of certain Kizhan Adikal.[16] By 1121, an unnamed Kupaka ruler had defeated Pandya king Rajasimha and conquered up to Nanjinadu and Kottar.[11] Vira Kerala, the independent ruler of Venad (possibly the son of Rama Kulasekhara[10]), finds mention in a Cholapuram temple inscription dated to 1126 AD.[12]
Epigraphic records
Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: old Malayalam (unless otherwise stated)
Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from Panthalayani Kollam, the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam
A council of the Village Assembly (the Ur) and the Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval) in the presence of certain Kadaingothu Narayanan Ravi Koyil at the Aralur temple.
The council unanimously appoint the priests of the temple, fix remuneration and terms of service.
Perunna temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple)[14]
Royal order
"Kulasekhara"
King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.
King sitting in council with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the Thrikkunnappuzha at the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.
The king ordered the cancellation of Annual Dues (the Attaikkol) and War Tax (the Aranthai) from Perunneyathal.
The institution of Namaskaram and Maparatham with the above amount and handed it over to the Perunneyathal Village Assembly (the Ur) and Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval).
Royal orders to this effect were sent to the Kudippadis through messengers.
The record specifically mentions that the assembly caused a stone marking the cancellation of the War Tax to be erected there.
Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the vathilmadam of the temple)[14]
Temple inscription (10th year)
"Ma[ha] Ko Rama" (10th year)
Period of Manangattu Kumaran Ravi as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu (Wadakkanchery).
Pulloor Kumaran Kumarathichan, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, supervises the Nedumpuram temple, making some arrangements in the temple.
Kumarathichan was perhaps not entitled to supervise the Nedumpuram temple..[8]
King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year)
A resolution revoking the arrangements made by Kumarathichan.[8]
Period of Thalappulathu Kandan Kumaran as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu.
Kanjirappalli Ravi Kannapiran, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, sitting in council in the temple decided to cancel the decision taken by Pulloor Kumaran Kumarithichan, the former leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu.
Kannapiran gave orders to this effect to the officials of Nithyaviyareswaram temple. Fine is prescribed for the violation of the rules.
Rameswaram temple inscription (Kollam) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) or 'Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278'
Royal order
"Rama Thiruvadi Koyil Adhikarikal alias Sri Kulasekhara Chakravarthikal"
Rama Varma calls himself "Chakravarthikal" - i.e., independent ruler. Residing and issuing orders from Panankavil Palace, "Kurakkeni" Kollam.[17]
King sitting in council with the Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali), the Leader of the Thousand Nairs (the Ayiram), the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venad (the Arunutruvar), and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon, the chief of Eranadu (the first among the samanthas).[17]
King made amends for some offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Crown Land for that purpose to Kumara Udaya Varma, the chief of Venad.[17]
The king makes provision for Koothu (the Dance) and offering at Thirukkunavaya (Jain?) temple.[17]
Witnesses are mentioned
1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)[16]
Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil.
ainnāḻikoḷḷum-iṭaṅkaḻiyāl muppattaru kala nelli rāmecurattu maṇṭapattil [kūttaṅ]kūṭi-yirunnatil i[vvāṇṭu] mutal tiru...vaikkum tirukkūttuṅkūṭi-cce[lvatu]
I
kiṛṛaṭiccuvarattu meloṭitti...lu cennel muppattaṛu-kalam...lippaṭi-patiṉeṇkalam nellāl celaviṭuvitu
I
vaiccanel patiṉaiṅkalattāl toḷḷāyira-nāḻi palākkāṭṭu kaṇṇan tevaṉ celaviṭuvitu
I
toḷḷāyira-nāḻi mel ivvur cattipiramañ celaviṭuvitu
I
celavu muṭṭikiṉṛe...mayālaññāḻi ari taṇṭapattu celaviṭuvitu
I
Medieval Malayalam sloka, Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, Vijnanadeepika, IV
Patron of Vasubhatta
Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.[21] Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara and Rama Rajasekhara) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.[21] Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).[22] This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.[23]
Accounts of disappearance
It is popularly believed in the Kerala tradition that the last Chera ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) disappeared from the Kerala "mysteriously" (after having partitioned the Chera kingdom among his kinsmen).[24] In a popular version of the legend, the last Chera ruler or the Cheraman Perumal, before his departure from Kerala, converted to Islam (and then travelled to Mecca for the hajj pilgrimage).[25] The legends are not clear about the religion the king seems to have converted.[26] However, the legend of Cheraman Perumal was used by the later kings in Kerala for the legitimation of their rule.[26][24]
Identification of the Cheraman Perumal from the legend with Rama Kulasekhara remains an ambiguous hypothesis.[24]
Understandably enough, the mythical last ruler of Kerala, Cēramān Perumāḷ, wondered, ‘What will become of me?’ What, after all, was left for him to do other than what his historical predecessors, Sthāṇu Ravi and Rāma Rājaśēkhara, had done in the ninth century when the state was still in an incipient stage of development? Like the two ninth-century kings, he abdicated throne, embraced religion, and went on a pilgrimage!
— Manu V. Devadevan (historian), "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State", The ‘Early Medieval’ Origins of India (2020)
^Narayanan, M. G. S. (2002). "The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala". In Champakalakshmi, R.; Veluthat, Kesavan; Venugopalan, T. R. (eds.). State and Society in Premodern South India. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 111–19.
^ abcdeNarayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 469–70.
^Ayyar, A. S. Ramanatha, ed. (1924). "Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278". Travancore Archaeological Series. Vol. V. Trivandrum: Government of Travancore. pp. 44–46.
^Kunjan Pillai, Elamkulam, P. N. (1963) [1953]. Kerala Charithrathile Iruladanja Edukal. Kottayam. pp. 147–8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Ayyar, Ulloor S. Parameswara. Vijnana Deepika. Vol. IV.
^Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–30.
^ abcKarashima, Noburu (2014). "States in the Deccan and Kerala". A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. pp. 146–47.
^Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The ‘Early Medieval’: Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 149–50.
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