The Turkish revolutionaries rejected the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), which had left the Ottoman government in control of substantially less of Anatolia than modern Turkey controls. Following the victory of Atatürk's forces in the War of Independence, the Treaty of Sèvres was substituted with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which granted international recognition to the government of Ankara, rather than the Ottoman government in Istanbul.
Turkey’s Soviet tanks
In 1932, the Soviet Union sent two T-26 Mod. 1931s (equipped with two 7.62mm machinegun turrets), four T-27 tankettes, and many vehicles and motorcycles to the Turkish Army in order to increase its part of the arms market and expand the USSR's influence beyond its vast borders.[1] The Soviet Union hoped that favourable experiences with the given AFVs would lead to the Turkish Army placing a significant order for Soviet weaponry equipment.[2] This strategy paid off, as Turkey ordered 64 T-26 Mod. 1933s, one T-37A, and 34 BA-3 armoured cars in 1934.[3] The T-26s were the Turkish Army's first genuine tanks, serving with the newly formed 1st Tank Regiment of the 2nd Cavalry Division in Lüleburgaz, on the border with Greece.[2] Despite being quickly supplemented by a number of Vickers Mk VI light tanks from the United Kingdom and 100 French Renault R-35s that arrived in Türkiye in 1940, the T-26's relatively powerful penetration capabilities ensured they remained the most capable tanks in Turkish service until the arrival of the first Valentine tanks from the United Kingdom in 1941.[4] The 1st Tank Regiment at the time was made up of the 102nd and 103rd Tank Divisions, as well as a Reserve Division.[5] The BA-3s were divided into two divisions: the 1st and 2nd Armoured Car Divisions.[6] The T-26 Mod. 1931s and T-27s formed a Mixed Tank Company and were primarily used to familiarize troops with tanks (a single FT-17 was bought from France in 1928 for the similar purpose) and demonstrate tank effectiveness to other army formations.[6] This structure is thought to have stayed unchanged until the last T-26s and BA-3s were retired in 1943.[6]
Because Turkey remained neutral during WWII until February 1945, the Soviet-delivered T-26s and BA-3s would never see combat against a foreign foe.[citation needed] Nonetheless, these Soviet AFVs laid the groundwork for tank operations in the Turkish Army, a fact that is seldom understood even now.[2] This information is probably even more strange in light of the fact that 20 years after its delivery, there was no sign of Soviet weapons systems remaining in Türkiye, with the country instead receiving vast numbers of US tanks for possible use in a battle against the USSR.[2]
Unlike the T-26, the amphibious light tank design was not well received by the Turkish Army, and no additional T-37As were ever ordered.[1] The tank, armed with only a single 7.62mm DT machine gun and weakly armoured (3mm to 10mm at the front), offered few remarkable features aside from its amphibious capability.[7] Nonetheless, the Soviet Army found the concept well-suited to their doctrine, purchasing over 2500 T-37As, another 1300+ T-38s, and 350+ T-40s in the 1930s.[2][8] The tankette concept was also rejected by Turkish Army leadership, and aside from the four prototypes supplied by the Soviets, Türkiye made no attempt to obtain further T-27s or contemporary designs from other sources. Of course, after WWII, the tankette concept was generally abandoned (with the noteworthy exception of the German Wiesel), and their intended mission of reconnaissance was instead filled by light tanks and armoured cars.[2] None of the Turkish T-37As or T-27s survive today, having most likely been demolished by the late 1940s.[8]
The BA-3 armoured car was only marginally more popular than the T-27 and T-37A, owing mostly to its heavy armament of a single 45mm gun and one 7.62mm DT MG placed in the same turret as the T-26 (a second DT was located in the hull).[9] The type's low mobility was a key disadvantage, and operations were frequently limited to hard surfaces due to its substantial weight, however tracks could be attached to the rear wheels for slightly increased mobility in rough terrain.[2] The BA-3's hull armour was 9mm thick, providing all-around protection.[9][8]
In comparison to the typically decades-long career of modern tanks, which for some Leopard 2 MBTs is already more than 40 years, Turkey's T-26s survived fewer than ten years (which is still considerably over the average tank's longevity of this era).[8] The tanks began to wear out by the early 1940s, and their bad condition was aggravated by a dearth of spare parts, which could no longer be obtained from the war-torn Soviet Union.[9] All T-26s had previously been decommissioned from operational service by 1943.[8] Two T-26 Mod. 1933s remain in the gardens of the Harbiye Military Museum in Istanbul and the Etimesgut Tank Müzesi in Ankara, albeit without their original camouflage scheme.[2]
For a country that currently employs a considerable number of German and American-made tanks, the founding of a tank arm (and, indeed, its first tank regiment) equipped with Soviet-made tanks is a historical oddity.[9] Turkey is the only country in the world to have operated tanks from practically every major player in World War II, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, and France.[8] Little evidence of this past remains, save for the efforts of historians and writers to preserve and restore what would otherwise be lost.[2]
The Turkish Air Force had 131 first line aircraft in 1937, of which only half were relatively modern.[11] Turkey hoped to increase the size of its fleet to 300 by 1938.[11] Although Turkey had 300 trained pilots, the majority of them would be rated with moderate ability to fly in bad weather in a Western European Air Force.[11] In 1942, Ernest Phillips in his work Hitler's last Hope: A factual survey of the Middle East warzone and Turkey's vital strategic position admitted: "If the Germans were to stage an all out offensive in this area, they could bring more planes into the air than the Turks could even gather, and if we were to send too many from Libya to help Turkey, the weakness there would be such that we should be in difficulties on the other side of the Suez."[12] At the beginning of World War II the Turkish Air Force consisted of some 370 aircraft of all types, 450 pilots and 8,000 men.[13] During the war Turkey sent pilots to Great Britain for training purposes. 14 are known to have died in Great Britain.[14][15] One of them was shot down by a German plane during a training flight in British air space, the rest died in accidents. The daughter of former Air Forces Commander Emin Alpkaya, who had been sent to Britain for training during the war, stated she found something amazing while examining her father's wartime diaries. He wrote that "they have told me that I am ready to go to Berlin. I have returned from the bombardment at 6 in the morning. I was tired".[16] There were some allegations that Turkish pilots, who had been in Britain to get training during World War II, joined missions which bombed Berlin. However officials of the Turkish General Staff asserted that their pilots were never assigned in active aerial warfare and bombing flights.[14] Alpkaya may have been referring to a ride along in a plane manned by an allied crew, in which he took on the role of observer, and not a combat role.
During the Anglo-Turkish Treaty negotiations in September 1939 a military credit agreement amounting to £25 million was agreed upon.[20] A Turkish Ministry of Defence letter to the Turkish General Staff dating 22.03.1940 stated that the Turkish Army was to be increased to 1.3 million effectives, forming 14 army corps consisting of 41 infantry and 3 cavalrydivisions, 7 fortified positions and one armoured brigade.[20] Yet, the letter stated, "the material resources of the nation were unable to provide for the provisioning and transport of this large number of effectives".[21]
World War II broke out in the first year of the İsmet İnönü presidency, and both the Allies and the Axis started to put pressure on İnönü to bring Turkey into the war on their respective sides. The Germans sent Franz von Papen to Ankara, while Winston Churchill secretly met with İnönü inside a train wagon near Adana on January 30, 1943. İnönü later met with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference on December 4–6, 1943. Turkey remained neutral until the final stages of World War II and tried to maintain an equal distance between both the Axis and the Allies until February 1945, when Turkey entered the war on the side of the Allies against Germany and Japan.
Until 1941, both Roosevelt and Churchill thought that continued Turkish neutrality would serve the interests of the Allies by blocking the Axis from reaching the strategic oil reserves of the Middle East. But the early victories of the Axis up to the end of 1942 caused Roosevelt and Churchill to re-evaluate a possible Turkish participation in the war on the side of the Allies. Turkey had maintained a decently-sized Army and Air Force throughout the war, and Churchill wanted the Turks to open a new front in the Balkans. Roosevelt, on the other hand, still believed that a Turkish attack would be too risky. İnönü knew very well the hardships which his country had suffered during 11 years of incessant war between 1911 and 1922 and was determined to keep Turkey out of another war as long as he could. İnönü also wanted assurances on financial and military aid for Turkey, as well as a guarantee that the United States and the United Kingdom would stand beside Turkey in case of a Soviet invasion of the Turkish Straits after the war.
In April 1944, Turkey halted its sales of chromite to Germany, and broke off relations in August. Turkey declared war on the Axis powers in February, 1945, after the Allies made its invitation to the inaugural meeting of the United Nations (along with the invitations of several other nations) conditional on full belligerency. No Turkish troops ever saw combat.
During the Cold War, Turkey participated in the Korean War as a member state of the United Nations, suffering 731 deaths in combat. The fear of a Soviet invasion and Stalin's unconcealed desire to control the Turkish Straits eventually led Turkey to give up its principle of neutrality in foreign relations and join NATO on February 18, 1952. Following NATO membership, Turkey initiated a comprehensive modernization program for its Armed Forces.
International pressure led to a ceasefire; by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north.[32] At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. In mid-1975 among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the invasion.[33] There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots[34] and 502 Turkish Cypriots[35] missing as a result of the fighting from over ten years of conflict.
The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union.[36]
Recent
Towards the end of the 1980s, a restructuring and modernization process has been initiated by the Turkish Armed Forces, which still continues today. The final goal of Turkey is to produce indigenous military equipment and to become increasingly self-sufficient in terms of military technologies.
Turkey's armed forces participated in the NATO-led military intervention and no-fly zone in Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's government troops.
The Turkish Navy participated with five ships and one submarine in the NATO-led naval blockade to enforce the arms embargo. It additionally provided six F-16 Fighting Falcon jets for aerial operations. On 24 March 2011, Turkey's parliament approved Turkish participation in military operations in Libya, including enforcing the NFZ in Libya. The airbases committed were Incirlik and İzmir.
^Papadakis, Yiannis (2003). "Nation, narrative and commemoration: political ritual in divided Cyprus". History and Anthropology. 14 (3): 253–270. doi:10.1080/0275720032000136642. S2CID143231403. culminating in the 1974 coup aimed at the annexation of Cyprus to Greece
^Ker-Lindsay, James; Faustmann, Hubert; Mullen, Fiona (2011). An Island in Europe: The EU and the Transformation of Cyprus. I.B. Tauris. p. 3. ISBN9781848856783. Divided since 1974, when Turkish forces invaded in response to a Greek led coup, many observers felt that taking in the island would either be far too risky or far too problematic.
^Mirbagheri, Faruk (2009). Historical Dictionary of Cyprus. Scarecrow Press. p. 43. ISBN978-0-8108-6298-2. On 20 July 1974, in response to the coup and justifying its action under the Treaty of Guarantee, Turkey landed forces in Kyrenia.
Olson, Robert (March 2000). "The Kurdish Rebellions of Sheikh Said (1925), Mt. Ararat (1930), and Dersim (1937–8): Their Impact on the Development of the Turkish Air Force and on Kurdish and Turkish Nationalism". Die Welt des Islams. 40 (1): 67–94. doi:10.1163/1570060001569893.
Male Deity Part of a series onTheism Types of faith Agnosticism Apatheism Atheism Classical theism Deism Henotheism Ietsism Ignosticism Monotheism Monism Dualism Monolatry Kathenotheism Omnism Pandeism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Transtheism Specific conceptions Brahman Creator Demiurge Deus Father Form of the Good God Great Architect Monad Mother Summum bonum Supreme Being Sustainer The Lord Trinity Tawhid Ditheism Monism Personal Unitarianism In particular religions Abrahamic Judaism Chri…
此條目需要补充更多来源。 (2021年7月4日)请协助補充多方面可靠来源以改善这篇条目,无法查证的内容可能會因為异议提出而被移除。致使用者:请搜索一下条目的标题(来源搜索:美国众议院 — 网页、新闻、书籍、学术、图像),以检查网络上是否存在该主题的更多可靠来源(判定指引)。 美國眾議院 United States House of Representatives第118届美国国会众议院徽章 众议院旗帜…
Series of 1940s US nuclear tests Operation SandstoneSandstone-Yoke, 49 kilotons.InformationCountryUnited StatesTest site Aomon (Sally), Enewetak Atoll Enjebi (Janet), Enewetak Atoll Runit (Yvonne), Enewetak Atoll Period1948Number of tests3Test typetowerMax. yield49 kilotonnes of TNT (210 TJ)Test series chronology← Operation CrossroadsOperation Ranger → Operation Sandstone was a series of nuclear weapon tests in 1948. It was the third series of American tests, foll…
يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (مايو 2023)Learn how and when to remove this message مارينكو غاليتش معلومات شخصية الميلاد 22 أبريل 1970 (54 سنة) كوبر الطول 178 سنتيمتر …
Национальное аэрокосмическое агентство Азербайджана Штаб-квартира Баку, ул. С. Ахундова, AZ 1115 Локация Азербайджан Тип организации Космическое агентство Руководители Директор: Натиг Джавадов Первый заместитель генерального директора Тофик Сулейманов Основание Основ…
2010 single by Adele Rolling in the DeepSingle by Adelefrom the album 21 B-sideIf It Hadn't Been for LoveReleased29 November 2010 (2010-11-29)Recorded2010StudioEastcote (London, England)GenreRhythm and bluessoulLength3:48LabelXLColumbiaSongwriter(s)Adele AdkinsPaul EpworthProducer(s)Paul EpworthAdele singles chronology Water and a Flame (2009) Rolling in the Deep (2010) Someone like You (2011) Music videoRolling in the Deep on YouTube Rolling in the Deep is a song by English singe…
Economy of FloridaStatisticsGDP$1.4 trillion (2022)[1]GDP per capita$63,081 (2022)[1][2]Unemployment2.7% (Aug. 2022)[3] Florida counties by GDP (2021) The economy of the state of Florida is the fourth-largest in the United States, with a $1.4 trillion gross state product (GSP) as of 2022.[1] If Florida were a sovereign nation (2022), it would rank as the world's 16th-largest economy by nominal GDP according to the International Monetary Fund, ahe…
Major Seoul-Busan transport link in South Korea For the normal speed railway, see Gyeongbu Line. Gyeongbu HSROverviewNative name경부고속선StatusIn operation: Seoul–Daejeon Daejeon–Daegu Daegu–Busan Planned: downtown Seoul OwnerKorea Rail Network AuthorityTerminiSeoul Station(actual end of line:Siheung Interconnectionnear Geumcheon-gu Office station)Busan stationStations6ServiceTypeHigh-speed railOperator(s)Korea Train ExpressDepot(s)OsongGwangmyeong (night)Yeongdong (maintenance)Rolli…
Dinas HukumTentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Udara (Diskumau)Lambang TNI AUNegara IndonesiaCabangTNI Angkatan UdaraTipe unitBadan Pelaksana PusatBagian dariTentara Nasional IndonesiaSitus webProfil DiskumauTokohKepalaMarsekal Pertama TNI Agus Pramono, S.H., LL.M., Ph.D Dinas Hukum TNI Angkatan Udara, disingkat (Diskumau)[1] adalah Badan Pelaksana Pusat di tingkat markas besar TNI Angkatan Udara, yang bertugas menyelenggarakan pembinaan profesi hukum, sarana prasarana hukum, materi…
Railway station in Stirling, Scotland, UK BalquhidderBalquhidder railway station in 1961General informationLocationLochearnhead, Stirling (district)ScotlandCoordinates56°21′33″N 4°18′35″W / 56.35919°N 4.30978°W / 56.35919; -4.30978Platforms3Other informationStatusDisusedHistoryOriginal companyCallander and Oban RailwayPre-groupingCallander and Oban Railway operated by Caledonian RailwayKey dates1 June 1870Opened as Lochearnhead[1]1 July 1904Renamed as …
الحدثكأس ألمانيا 2004–05 شالكه 04 بايرن ميونخ 1 2 التاريخ28 مايو 2005 الملعبالملعب الأولمبي الحكمفلوريان ماير الحضور74359 →نهائي كأس ألمانيا 2004 نهائي كأس ألمانيا 2006 ← نهائي كأس ألمانيا 2005 هي المباراة النهائية من منافسة كأس ألمانيا 2004–05، أقيمت المباراة في 28 م…
Measurement for ionizing radiation This article is about radioactivity. For other uses of abbreviation, see CPM (disambiguation). The measurement of ionizing radiation is sometimes expressed as being a rate of counts per unit time as registered by a radiation monitoring instrument, for which counts per minute (cpm) and counts per second (cps) are commonly used quantities. Count rate measurements are associated with the detection of particles, such as alpha particles and beta particles. However, …
President of the Landtag of Liechtenstein from 1922 to 1927 Wilhelm BeckPresident of the Landtag of LiechtensteinIn officeJanuary 1922 – December 1927MonarchJohann IIPrime MinisterJosef OspeltAlfons FegerFelix GubelmannGustav SchädlerPreceded byFritz WalserSucceeded byAnton Frommelt Personal detailsBorn26 March 1885Triesenberg, LiechtensteinDied20 January 1936 (aged 50)Walenstadt, SwitzerlandPolitical partyChristian-Social People's PartySpouse Maria Anna Bürke (m.…
Townships in North Carolina, United States Location of Carr Township in Durham County, N.C. Carr Township is one of six townships in Durham County, North Carolina, United States. The township had a population of 2,441 according to the 2010 census.[1] Geographically, Carr Township occupies 27.25 square miles (70.6 km2) in eastern Durham County. The township is occupied by small portions of the city of Falls Lake. The township was formerly part of Cedar Fork Township in Wake County bu…
Questa voce sugli argomenti artiodattili e fisiologia è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Sacca di muschio Il muschio è una sostanza che viene secreta dai maschi della famiglia dei Moschidi, ruminanti di piccola taglia presenti nell'Asia centro-orientale e centro-meridionale. La specie più conosciuta è Moschus moschiferus, animale stanziale che provvede a marchiare il proprio territorio seminandoci le palline di muschio, che si formano in d…