Meteora is located in between the town of Kalabaka and the village of Kastraki at the northwestern edge of the Plain of Thessaly near the Pineios river and Pindus Mountains.[5] The Meteora complex was added to the UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1988 because of its outstanding architecture and beauty, combined with religious and cultural significance.[6]
The name means "lofty", "elevated", and is etymologically related to meteor.[7]
Geology
Beside the Pindos Mountains, in the western region of Thessaly, these unique and enormous columns of rock rise precipitously from the ground. But their unusual form is not easy to explain geologically. They are not volcanic plugs of hard igneous rock typical elsewhere, but the rocks are composed of a mixture of sandstone and conglomerate.[8]: 5
The conglomerate was formed of deposits of stone, sand, and mud from streams flowing into a delta at the edge of a lake, over millions of years. About 60 million years ago during the Paleogene period[9] a series of earth movements pushed the seabed upward, creating a high plateau and causing many vertical fault lines in the thick layer of sandstone. The huge rock pillars were then formed by weathering by water, wind, and extremes of temperature on the vertical faults. It is unusual that this conglomerate formation and type of weathering are confined to a relatively localised area within the surrounding mountain formation. The complex is referred to an exhumed continental remnant of Pangean association.[8][clarification needed]
This type of rock formation and weathering process has happened in many other places locally and throughout the world, but what makes Meteora's appearance special is the uniformity of the sedimentary rock constituents deposited over millions of years leaving few signs of vertical layering, and the localised abrupt vertical weathering.
Excavations and research have discovered petrifieddiatoms in Theopetra Cave, which have contributed to understanding the Palaeo-climate and climate changes. Radiocarbon dating evidences human presence dating back 50,000 years.[3] The cave used to be open to the public, but is currently closed indefinitely, for safety inspections.[10]
Vegetation grows thickly out of the vertical rock walls, mainly due to the water that one is able to find in the cracks and crevices that scale the cliff.[8]: 11 Over the past several hundred years, the reports that the Meteora was easily accessible by foot have changed because now one must pass through an impenetrable jungle.[8]: 13
Being such massive unpredictable rock pillars, rock falls pose a constant threat to pilgrims and tourists of Meteora. An earthquake of magnitude 7 on the Richter Scale shook the rocks in 1954; miraculously the thin pillars still stand today. In 2005, a massive rock fell, closing the access road leading up to Meteora for days.[8]: 14
Theopetra Cave is located 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from Kalambaka. Its uniqueness from an archeological perspective is that a single site contains records of two greatly significant cultural transitions: the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans and later, the transition from hunting-gathering to farming after the end of the last Ice Age. The cave consists of an immense 500 square metres (5,400 sq ft) rectangular chamber at the foot of a limestone hill, which rises to the northeast above the village of Theopetra, with an entrance 17 metres (56 ft) wide by 3 metres (9.8 ft) high. It lies at the foot of the Chasia mountain range, which forms the natural boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia regions, while the Lithaios River, a tributary of the Pineios River, flows in front of the cave. The small Lithaios River flowing literally on the doorsteps of the cave meant that cave dwellers always had easy access to fresh, clean water without the need to cover daily long distances to find it.[11]
Ancient history
Caves in the vicinity of Meteora were inhabited continuously between 50,000 and 5,000 years ago. The oldest known example of a built structure, a stone wall that blocked two-thirds of the entrance to the Theopetra cave, was constructed 23,000 years ago, probably as a barrier against cold winds (Earth was experiencing an ice age at the time), and many paleolithic and neolithic artifacts of human occupation have been found within the caves.[3][12]
Meteora is not mentioned in classical Greek myths, nor in Ancient Greek literature. The first people who were documented to inhabit Meteora after the Neolithic Era were an ascetic group of hermit monks who, in the 800s CE, moved up to the ancient pinnacles. They lived in hollows and fissures in the rock towers, some of them as high as 1800 ft (550m) above the plain. This great height, combined with the sheerness of the cliff walls, kept away all but the most determined visitors. Initially, the hermits led a life of solitude, meeting only on Sundays and special days, to worship and pray in a chapel built at the foot of a rock known as Dupiani.[2]
As early as the eleventh century, monks occupied the caverns of Meteora. However, monasteries were not built there until the 1300s, when the monks sought somewhere to hide in the face of an increasing number of attacks by the Turks upon Greece.[13][14] At this time, access to the top was via removable ladders or hoisting ropes. Currently, getting up there is much simpler, due to steps having been carved-into the rock during the 1920s. Of the 24 monasteries, only six (four of men, two of women) are still functioning, with each housing fewer than ten individuals.[15]
History and construction of the monasteries
The exact date of the establishment of the monasteries is widely believed to be unknown. However, there are clues to when each of the monasteries was constructed. By the late eleventh century and early 1100s, a rudimentary monastic state had formed, called the Skete of Stagoi, and it was centerd around the still-standing church of Theotokos (Mother of God).[2] By the end of the 1100s, an ascetic community had flocked to Meteora.
In 1344, Athanasios Koinovitis from Mount Athos, later known as Athanasios the Meteorite, brought a group of followers to Meteora. From 1356 to 1372, he founded The Monastery of Great Meteoron on the Broad Rock. That location was perfect for the monks, because there, they were safe from political upheaval, and they had complete control of the entry to the monastery. The only means of reaching it was by climbing a long ladder, which was drawn-up whenever the monks thought that there was a threat to them.[16] The creation of the monastic community at Meteora was protected and sponsored by the local lord Simeon Uroš, based in nearby Trikala, who in 1356 had proclaimed himself Emperor of Serbs and Greeks following the death of Stefan Dušan.[4]: 414
Simeon Uros was succeeded in 1370 by his son John Uroš, who three years later retired as a monk to the Meteoron monastery and died there in the early 1420s. At the end of the fourteenth century, Christian rule over northern Greece was being increasingly threatened by Turkish raiders who wanted control over the fertile plain of Thessaly, which they finally secured in the second half of the 15th century. The hermit monks, seeking a retreat from the expanding Ottoman empire, found the inaccessible rock pillars of Meteora to be an ideal refuge. More than 20 monasteries were built,[14] of which six remain today. In 1517, Theophanes built the monastery of Varlaam, which was reputed to house the finger of St. John and the shoulder blade of St. Andrew.[17]
Access to the monasteries was originally (and deliberately) difficult, requiring either long ladders that were latched together, or large nets that were used to haul-up both goods and people. This required quite a leap of faith, because the ropes were replaced, so the story goes, only "when the Lord let them break".[18] In the words of UNESCO: "The net in which intrepid pilgrims were hoisted up vertically alongside the 373 metres (1,224 ft) cliff where the Varlaam monastery dominates the valley symbolizes the fragility of a traditional way of life that is threatened with extinction."[19]
Until the 1600s, the primary means of conveying goods and people from these high places was by means of baskets and ropes.[20]
In the 1920s, there was an improvement in the arrangements: Steps were cut into the rock, making the complex accessible via a bridge from the nearby plateau. During World War II, the site was bombed.[22]
List of rocks
The Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rocks of MeteoraMap of Meteora
There are various rocks of Meteora that surround the village of Kastraki and border the north side of the main town of Kalabaka.[23][24][25] The height in metres is also given for various rocks.[26]
Psaropetra ("Fish Rock"), now a viewpoint on the main road that is popular with tourists
The greater Meteora rock formation also extends northwest into the Gavros and Agios Dimitrios areas, although the term Meteora is commonly used to refer to only the rocks around Kalabaka and Kastraki.
The Monasteries of Meteora
At their peak in the 16th century, there were 24 monasteries at Meteora in Greece. They were created to serve monks and nuns following the teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Much of the architecture of these buildings is Athonite in origin. Today there are six still functioning, while the remainder are largely in ruin. Perched onto high cliffs, they are now accessible by staircases and pathways cut into the rock formations.[16]
List of monasteries
Traditionally, the 24 historic monasteries of Meteora are listed as follows.[39][40] Coordinates are also given for some sites.[41] The list is primarily sourced from Vlioras (2017),[41] with some additional notes from Provatakis (2006).[40]
Founded in 1358 in a rock cave (39°48′8″N21°40′42″E / 39.80222°N 21.67833°E / 39.80222; 21.67833 (Palaiopanagia Monastery)). 7 km north of Vlachava village, near the Ion (or Mikani) River, a tributary of the Pineios.[42] It can be reached via a dirt road that goes out to the northeast from the village center of Vlachava. A carved staircase leads up to the rock cave. Elevation: about 600 m. Also, directly behind it lies Kallistra Rock (βράχος Καλλίστρα), the site of the ruins of the Monastery of St. Kallistos (Μονή Αγίων Αποστόλων Καλλίστου), which is also called the Monastery of the Holy Apostles (Μονή των Αγίων Αποστόλων).
Ruins at the Holy Spirit (Agion Pnefma) Rock (39°43′06″N21°37′21″E / 39.718336°N 21.622516°E / 39.718336; 21.622516 (Monastery of St. George of Mandila)). Kerchiefs (mandilia) are traditionally hung at the cave entrance. The cave is 15 metres long and 4–5 metres deep at its center, and is located about 30 metres above the ground. It may have been one of the four monasteries founded around 1367 by Neilos, the Prior of the Skete of Stagoi. The Cave of St. George of Mandila may be the same as the Cave of Archimandrite Makarios near Pigadion.
Founded in 1367 by the Prior/Abbot of the Skete of Dupiani. In 1765, it was restored by Athanasios Vlachavas, a local leader. Today, Ypapantis Monastery (literally "Monastery of the Purification [of the Virgin Mary]") is inactive and rarely visited, although the building (39°44′00″N21°37′51″E / 39.733470°N 21.630868°E / 39.733470; 21.630868 (Ypapantis Monastery)) has been restored.[45] The interior of the building is usually closed to visitors. Accessible by footpaths, one of which passes by Ftelias (Φτελιάς) Rock.
The Holy Monastery of Great Meteoron is the oldest and largest of the monasteries of Meteora. The monastery is believed to have been built just before the mid 14th century by a monk from Mount Athos named Saint Athanasios the Meteorite.[48] He began the build with a church in dedication to the Mother of God, the Virgin Mary. He later added small cells so that monks could concentrate and live atop the rock formations.[49] The monastery's second name is, The Holy Monastery of the Transfiguration, which got its name from the second church St. Meteorites built. The successor of Saint Athanasios was Saint Joasaph, who continued to build more cells, a hospital, and renovated the churches atop the rocks. The Monastery thrived in the 16th century when it received many imperial and royal donations.[50] At the time it had over three hundred monks living and worshipping within its cells. It is still a living monastery as there were three monks in residence as of 2015.[51][49]
Being the largest among all the monasteries allows it to have a particular layout filled with many buildings. The katholikon is dedicated to the Transfiguration of Jesus and was the first church of the monastery. The hermitage of the first founder of the monastery is a small building carved in rock. The kitchen or what is commonly referred to as the hestia is a dome-shaped building near the refectory. There is also a hospital, with its famous roof of the ground floor made of brick and supported on four columns. The three old churches or chapels include: The Chapel of Saint John the Baptist which lies next to the katholikon sanctuary, The Saints Constantine and Helen Chapel which is an aisle-less church with large vault, and finally the chapel of Virgin Mary situated in the cave.[49][52][53]
The Monastery of Varlaam is the second largest monastery of Meteora. The name Varlaam comes from a monk named Varlaam who scaled the rocks in 1350 and began construction on the monasteries. Varlaam built three churches by hoisting materials up the face of the cliffs. After Varlaam's death, the monastery was abandoned for two hundred years until two monk brothers, Theophanes and Nektarios Apsarades, came to the rock in the 16th century and began to rebuild the churches in October 1517.[54] The two brothers from Ioannina spent twenty-two years hoisting materials to the top of the rock formation, however, the building only is reported to have taken around twenty days.[17] Monks have been present since the 16th century, however, there has been a constant decline in their presence since the 17th century.[50][17] Today the monastery is accessed through a series of ladders that scale the north side of the rock. The museum is open to travelers and contains a wide array of relics and ecclesiastical treasures. As of 2015[update] there are seven monks remaining in Varlaam.[17]
The Monastery of Rousanou located atop the rock structures
The Monastery of Rousanou is believed to have been constructed, like many of the other monasteries, in the 14th century.[55] The cathedral is believed to have been built in the 16th century and later decorated in 1540. The name Rousanou is believed to come from the first group of monks who settled on the rock from Russia.[56] The monastery sits on the elevation 484 meters. Lying in the middle of the site, visitors can see the other monasteries, as well as the ruins of the Monastery of St. John the Baptist and the Pantokrator.[57]
The Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapausas is located atop a small narrow rock. It is approximately eighty meters high and the first which the pilgrims encounter on their way to the holy Meteora. The Monastery was founded in the late 14th century and today is surrounded by the deserted and ruined monasteries of St. John Prodromos, the Pantocrator, and the chapel of Panagia Doupiani.[58] The monastery served as a resting place for pilgrims and quickly got its name of Anapausas (modern pronunciation anapafseos), 'resting'.[13][14] Being on such a narrow surface, the floors are connected through an interior staircase. St. Nicholas is honored on the second floor where the katholikon is located. On the third floor, there is the Holy Table and the walls are decorated by 14th-century frescoes. The monastery has been restored in the 16th century and again in the 1960s.[14]
The Monastery of the Holy Trinity is believed to have been built in the 14th and 15th century. Even prior to this, ancient Greeks established hermitages at the base of the rock cliffs.[59] In the 14th century, John Uroš moved to the Meteora and endowed and built monasteries on top of the rock cliffs. He offered the sanctuaries as a safe haven during times of political upheaval.[13] The monk Dometius was said to be the founder of the monastery, arriving at the site of Holy Trinity in 1438. The actual monastery is believed to have been built between 1475 and 1476.[60] Some do say that the exact construction date of the monastery like many of the other monasteries is unknown. By the end of the 16th century this was one of the last six monasteries still atop the Meteora.[16]
The Monastery of St. Stephen is located on a plateau-like structure. The original monastery was believed to have been built in the 14th century, however, a new katholikon was built in 1798 making it the newest of all the meteorite structures.[61] The monastery is made up of many buildings including new katholikon, the "hestia" (kitchen), an old refectory that has since become a museum, and an assortment of rooms with different purposes.[62] These include workrooms for paintings, embroidery, incense-making, and needlework. The church's interior was decorated with frescoes on the inside for a short period after 1545. However, During the World wars, the monasteries were bombed heavily and ransacked in the belief that the monks were holding refugees.[61] As of 2015[update], the Monastery of St. Stephen is home to 28 nuns after its conversion to a nunnery in 1961.[61]
The Monastery of Rousanou (in order from background to foreground). The Holy Spirit Rock is on the left side, while Dupiani Rock can be seen in the center, at the middle of the valley.
Meteora is popular with hikers, trail runners, mountain bikers, and rock climbers from around the world, particularly during the summer. The Meteora MTB Race, also known as the Vasilis Efstathiou (Βασίλης Ευσταθίου) MTB Race, is held annually at Meteora.[63]
The 1957 film Boy on a Dolphin is partly shot in Meteora.[65]Clifton Webb's character visits Meteora, and goes up to the Holy Trinity monastery to do some library research.
One of the surviving characters in Max Brooks's zombie apocalypse novel World War Z finds refuge and peace of mind in the monasteries during and after the zombie war.
Meteora served as an inspiration for the Eyrie in the Game of Thrones television series.[67]
The design of the Elysium realm in The Fate of Atlantis downloadable chapter of Assassin's Creed Odyssey was inspired by the geology of Meteora.
Meteora was the location of the first challenge in the eighth season of the Belgian reality show De Mol.[68]
A professional wrestling move innovated by CIMA was named after the Meteora, as that was where he had proposed to his wife.
The external design of the level "St. Francis' Folly" in the 1996 game Tomb Raider and its 2007 remake was inspired by the lofty monasteries of Meteora.
^ abcSofianos, D.Z.: "Metéora". Holy Monastery of Great Meteoro, 1991.
^ abcY. Facorellis, N. Kyparissi-Apostolika and Y. Maniatis 2001 The cave of Theopetra, Kalambaka: radiocarbon evidence f Radiocarbon43 (2B): 1029–48
^ abAlexis G. C. Savvides (1998), "Splintered medieval hellenism: The semi-autonomous state of Thessaly (AD 1213/1222 to 1454/1470) and its place in history", Byzantion, 68 (2), Peeters Publishers: 406–418, JSTOR44172339
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. p. 1-2
^"Meteora". Unesco World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
^ abcdeRassios, Anne Ewing; Ghikas, Dina; Dilek, Yildirim; Vamvaka, Agni; Batsi, Anna; Koutsovitis, Petros (28 September 2020). "Meteora: a Billion Years of Geological History in Greece to Create a World Heritage Site". Geoheritage. 12 (4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 83. Bibcode:2020Geohe..12...83R. doi:10.1007/s12371-020-00509-9. ISSN1867-2477. S2CID221986191.
^"Meteora". www.beautifulworld.com. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
^ abcHammond, Peter (1965). "Meteora: the Rock Monasteries of Thessaly. By Donald M. Nicol. London: Chapman & Hall, 1963". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 16 (2). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 229. doi:10.1017/s0022046900054099. ISSN0022-0469. S2CID161659078.
^Bourlis Alexios (archimandrite), The Holy Monastery of Panagia of Meikani. The monastery of Paleopanagia Vlachava, Athens 2009. // Μπουρλής Αλέξιος (αρχιμανδρίτης), Η Ιερά Μονή Παναγίας της Μήκανης. Το μοναστήρι της Παλαιοπαναγιάς Βλαχάβας, Athens 2009.
^Sofianos Z. Dimitrios, Deriziotis Lazaros, The Holy Monastery of Ipapanti of Meteora. Academy of Athens, 2011, ISBN978-960-404-218-0. // Σοφιανός Ζ. Δημήτριος, Δεριζιώτης Λάζαρος, Η Ιερά Μονή της Υπαπαντής των Μετεώρων. Δεύτερο μισό του 14ου αιώνα, εκδ. Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 2011, σελ. 184, ISBN978-960-404-218-0.
^Sofianos Z. Dimitrios, The Hosios Athanasios the Meteorite: Life, sequence, synaxaria. Prolegomena, translation of the Life, critical edition of texts, ed. of I.M.M. Meteoros (Metamorphosis), Meteora 1990, no. 21. // Βέης Νικόλαος, «Συμβολή εις την ιστορία των μονών των Μετεώρων», Βυζαντίς 1, 1909, σελ. 236, 274–276.
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. p. 3
^ abPoulios, Ioannis. Living Sites : The Past in the Present : The Monastic Site of Meteora, Greece : Towards a New Approach to Conservation. Jan. 2008. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsble&AN=edsble.503480&site=eds-live&scope=site. p149
^Poulios, Ioannis. Living Sites : The Past in the Present : The Monastic Site of Meteora, Greece : Towards a New Approach to Conservation. Jan. 2008. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsble&AN=edsble.503480&site=eds-live&scope=site. p15
^"Look inside Meteora, a Remote Complex of Monasteries Built Thousands of Feet above the Ground in Greece." The Business Insider (Blogs on Demand), June 2020. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsgao&AN=edsgcl.655327382&site=eds-live&scope=site.
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. p. 78
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. pg. 135–137
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. pg. 144
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. pg 147
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. p. 158
^Nicol, Donald MacGillivray. Meteora : The Rock Monasteries of Thessaly by Donald M Nicol. Chapman and Hall, 1963. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.holycross.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat06787a&AN=chc.b1193287&site=eds-live&scope=site. p. 164-166
Ioannis, Papasotiriou, The Meteora, ed. Panourgia, Trikala 1934. // Παπασωτηρίου Ιωάννης, Τα Μετέωρα, εκδ. Πανουργιά, Τρίκαλα 1934.
Nikolaos, Vais, "Contribution to the history of the monasteries of Meteora", Byzantius 1, 1909, p. 236, 274–276. // Βέης Νικόλαος, «Συμβολή εις την ιστορία των μονών των Μετεώρων», Βυζαντίς 1, 1909, σελ. 236, 274–276.
Nikolaos, Vais, "Serbian and Byzantine letters of Meteora", Byzantius 2 (1910/11) pp. 89–96. // Βέης Νικόλαος, «Σερβικά και Βυζαντιακά γράμματα Μετεώρου», Βυζαντίς, 2 (1910/11) σελ. 89–96 & Σπανός Βασίλειος, Ιστορία-Προσωπογραφία της Β.Δ. Θεσσαλίας το β' μισό του ΙΔ' αιώνα, Λάρισα 1995.
Reader's Digest. Strange Worlds Amazing Places (1994), 432 pp. Published: Reader's Digest Association Limited, London. ISBN0-276-42111-6.
Spyridon, Vlioras (2017). Holy Meteora – The rocks that neighbour heaven, trans. Caroline Makropoulos. Athens: Militos (Μίλητος). ISBN978-960-464-925-9.
Vasilios, Spanos History-Prosopography of NW Thessaly in the second half of the 14th century, Larissa 1995. // Σπανός Βασίλειος, Ιστορία-Προσωπογραφία της Β.Δ. Θεσσαλίας το β' μισό του ΙΔ' αιώνα, Λάρισα 1995.
Meteora Trails (In 2021, an effort to map the entire trail network of Meteora began, which now consists of 14 interconnected trails covering the entire area.)
.jpg)
