Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Sardinia from the 14th century
Sardinia is traditionally known to have been initially ruled by the Nuragic civilization, which was followed by Greek colonization, conquest by the Carthagians, and occupied by the Romans for around a thousand years, including the rule of the Vandals in the 5th and 6th centuries CE. Before the foundation of the Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was ruled by judices, and some rulers obtained the title of King of Sardinia by the Holy Roman Emperor but did not gain effective authority to rule it.
The title of as Rex Sardiniae et Corsicae (King of Sardinia and Corsica) was first established in 1297, when Pope Boniface VIII gave a royal investiture to James II of Aragon. The Crown of Aragon started effectively ruling Sardinia in 1323. Until 1479, when Ferdinand II of Aragon acknowledged Corsica as part of the Republic of Genoa, rulers of Sardinia used the nominal title of Rex Corsicae (King of Corsica). Corsica had been effectively ruled by Genoa since 1284 and the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica had been renamed simply Kingdom of Sardinia in 1460, when it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the Crown of Aragon, and united only in the person of the king.
Monarchs of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica from 1323 and then of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1479 to 1861 included the House of Barcelona (1323–1410) and the House of Trastámara (1412–1516), the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg (1516–1700) and the House of Bourbon (1700–1708), and the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg (1708–1720). In 1720, the Kingdom of Sardinia was ceded to the House of Savoy, which ruled Sardinia–Piedmont until 1861, when it changed its name to the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946). During its existence from 1297 to 1861, 24 sovereigns from seven different dynasties succeeded one another on the throne of the kingdom.
Early history
Owing to the absence of written sources, little is known of the history of the Nuraghic civilization, which constructed impressive megalithic structures between the 18th and the 12th centuries BCE. The first accounts of Sardinia are from Greek sources but relate more to myth than to historical reality. An African or Iberian hero, Norax, named the city of Nora; Sardo, a son of Hercules, gave the island its name; and one of his nephews, Iolaus, founded the city of Olbia.[1] Greek colonization of the city of Olbia has been confirmed by recent archaeological excavations.[2] Towards the end of the 6th century BC, Sardinia was conquered by the Carthaginians and in 238 BC it was occupied by the Romans for c. 1,000 years, with a period under the dominion of the Vandals in the 5th and 6th centuries CE.
According to Procopius,[3] Godas was a Vandal governor of Sardinia who rebelled against his king, Gelimer, who ruled northern Africa, Sardinia and Corsica. Procopius wrote that Godas behaved like a king but that it was a short-lived kingdom.[4] Godas was defeated and killed after two years by an expedition from Carthage led by King Gelimer's brother, Tzazo. Shortly afterwards, Roman troops sent by Emperor Justinianus and led by General Belisarius, totally annihilated the Vandal kingdom and Sardinia returned to Roman administration.
Vandal coin found in Sardinia depicting Godas (REX CVDA).
Before the Kingdom of Sardinia was founded, the rulers of the island were known as archons (ἄρχοντες in Greek) or "judges" (iudices in Latin, judices in Sardinian, giudici in Italian).[5][6] The island was organized into one "judicatus" from the 9th century. After the Muslim conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, the Byzantines (who ruled Sardinia) could no longer defend their isolated far western province. In all likelihood a local noble family came to power, still identifying themselves as vassals of the Byzantines but in reality independent since communication with Constantinople was very difficult. Of those rulers, only two names are known: Salusios (Σαλούσιος) and the protospatharios Turcoturios (Tουρκοτούριος),[7][8][9] who probably reigned some time in the 10th and 11th centuries. They were still closely linked to the Byzantines, both by a pact of ancient vassalage[10] and culturally, with the use of the Greek language (in a country of the Romance language) and Byzantine art. In the early 11th century, Muslims based in Spain attempted to conquer the island.[11] The only records of that war are from Pisan and Genoese chronicles.[12] The Christians won but afterwards the previous Sardinian kingdom had been undermined and was divided into four small judicati: Cagliari (Calari), Arborea (Arbaree), Gallura, Torres or Logudoro.
Some rulers obtained the title King of Sardinia (Rex Sardiniae) by grant of the Holy Roman Emperor, despite the emperor itself not having any sovereignty over the island, which made this a mere title with no effective authority over Sardinia:[13]
Enzo of Sardinia from the Hohenstaufen (1238–1245), who was the illegitimate son of Emperor Frederick II and was appointed by his father as King of Sardinia (1238–1245). In 1249, he was captured by his enemies and imprisoned in Bologna, where he died 23 years later.
Kings of Sardinia and Corsica
In 1297, James II of Aragon received royal investiture from Pope Boniface VIII and obtained the title King of Sardinia and Corsica (Rex Sardiniae et Corsicae); however, the Aragonese did not take possession of the island until 1323, after a victorious military campaign against the Pisans. The Sardinian royal title did not have a specific line of succession and all kings used their own primary title.[citation needed] The kingdom was initially called Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae (Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica), changed in 1460 to Regnum Sardiniae (Kingdom of Sardinia), in that it was originally meant to also include the neighbouring island of Corsica, which had been effectively ruled by Genoa since 1284 until its status as a Genoese land was eventually acknowledged by Ferdinand II of Aragon, who dropped the last original bit mentioning Corsica in 1479;[16] since then, the coinage minted since the establishment of the kingdom also bore the reference to Sardinia only.[17] From 1297 until 1861, there were 24 kings through seven dynasties that ruled Sardinia.[18]
Sardinia was taken over by Habsburg troops in 1708 during the War of the Spanish Succession in the name of the Habsburg claimant to the Spanish throne, "Charles III". At the end of the war, Sardinia remained in Charles' possession and, by the Treaty of Rastatt, was ceded to him.
Spanish forces invaded the kingdom in 1717 during the War of the Quadruple Alliance. The island was under Spanish military occupation until 1720, when it was given back to Emperor Charles VI, who in turn ceded it to the Duke of Savoy by the Treaty of The Hague.
The monarchs of the House of Savoy ruled from their mainland capital of Turin but styled themselves primarily with the royal title of Sardinia as superior to their original lesser dignity as Dukes of Savoy; however, their numeral order continued the Savoyard list.
In 1861, after the annexation of other states in the Italian peninsula, the Parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia passed a law (Legge n. 4671, 17 marzo 1861) adding to the style of the sovereign the title of King of Italy, although the monarchs retained the designation of King of Sardinia. The Savoy-led Kingdom of Sardinia was thus the legal predecessor state of the Kingdom of Italy, which in turn is the predecessor of the present-day Italian Republic.[19][20]
Coat of arms
Coats of arms of the House of Savoy
Coats of arms of the Kingdom of Sardinia until 1848
^F. Pinna (2010), "Le testimonianze archeologiche relative ai rapporti tra gli arabi e la Sardegna nel medioevo", Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 4.
^1) Κύριε βοήθε τοῦ δοῦλου σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντος Σαρδινίας καί τής δούλης σου Γετιτ 2) Tουρκοτουρίου βασιλικου πρωτοσπαθαρίου και Σαλουσίου των ευγενεστάτων αρχόντων.) R. CORONEO, Scultura mediobizantina in Sardegna, Nuoro, Poliedro, 2000
^Antiquitas nostra primum Calarense iudicatum, quod tunc erat caput tocius Sardinie, armis subiugavit, et regem Sardinie Musaitum nomine civitati Ianue captum adduxerunt, quem per episcopum qui tunc Ianue erat, aule sacri palatii in Alamanniam mandaverunt, intimantes regnum illius nuper esse additum ditioni Romani imperii." - Oberti Cancellarii, Annales p 71, Georg Heinrich (a cura di) MGH, Scriptores, Hannoverae, 1863, XVIII, pp. 56-96
^Crónica del califa 'Abd ar-Rahmân III an-Nâsir entre los años 912-942,(al-Muqtabis V), édicion. a cura de P. CHALMETA - F. CORRIENTE, Madrid,1979, p. 365 Tuesday, August 24th 942 (A.D.), a messenger of the Lord of the island of Sardinia appeared at the gate of al-Nasir ... asking for a treaty of peace and friendship. With him were the merchants, people Malfat, known in al-Andalus as from Amalfi, with the whole range of their precious goods, ingots of pure silver, brocades etc. ... transactions which drew gain and great benefits
^To the Archont of Sardinia: a bulla with two gold bisolida with this written: from the very Christian Lord to the Archont of Sardinia. (εὶς τὸν ἄρχοντα Σαρδανίας. βούλλα κρυσῆ δισολδία. "κέλευσις ὲκ τῶν φιλοχρίστων δεσποτῶν πρὸς τὸν ἄρχοντα Σαρδανίας".) Reiske, Johann Jakob: Leich, Johannes Heinrich, eds. (1829). Constantini Porphyrogeniti Imperatoris De Ceremoniis Aulae Byzantinae libri duo graece et latini e recensione Io. Iac. Reiskii cum eiusdem commentariis integris. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae 1 (Leipzig (1751-54) ed.). Bonn: Weber. pag. 690
^F. CODERA, Mochéid, conquistador de Cerdeña, in Centenario della nascita di Michele Amari. Scritti di filologia e storia araba; geografia, storia, diritto della Sicilia medioevale; studi bizantini e giudaici relativi all’Italia meridionale nel medio evo; documenti sulle relazioni fra gli Stati italiani e il Levante, vol. II, Palermo 1910, pp. 115-33, p. 124
^B. MARAGONIS, Annales pisani a.1004-1175, ed. K. PERTZ, in MGH, Scriptores, 19,Hannoverae, 1861/1963, pp. 236-2 and Gli Annales Pisani di Bernardo Maragone, a cura di M. L.GENTILE, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, n.e., VI/2, Bologna 1930, pp. 4-7. 1017. Fuit Mugietus reversus in Sardineam, et cepit civitatem edificare ibi atque homines Sardos vivos in cruce murare. Et tunc Pisani et Ianuenses illuc venere, et ille propter pavorem eorum fugit in Africam. Pisani vero et Ianuenses reversi sunt Turrim, in quo insurrexerunt Ianuenses in Pisanos, et Pisani vicerunt illos et eiecerunt eos de Sardinea
^Atzeni, Sergio (2020). I Giudicati Sardi. Storia dei quattro Regni Medievali (in Italian). Youcanprint. p. 16.
^Punchu, Dino, ed. (1996). "I Libri Iurium della Repubblica de Genova". Fonti per la storia della Liguria (in Italian). IV (390). Rome: Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali: 334.
^Casùla, Francesco Cesare (2012). Italia. Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 (in Italian) (e-book ed.). Sassari; Ussana: Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book). pp. 32–49. ISBN978-88-98062-13-3. Retrieved 20 December 2024 – via Google Books.
^Piras, Enrico (1996). Le monete della Sardegna, dal IV secolo a.C. al 1842 (in Italian). Sassari: Fondazione Banco di Sardegna.
^Sandulli, Aldo; Vesperini, Giulio (2011). "L'organizzazione dello Stato unitario"(PDF). Rivista trimestrale di diritto pubblico (in Italian): 48–95. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2013. [At p. 94] Dall'indagine sulla legislazione del quadriennio 1861-64, innanzi svolta, trova conferma quanto affermato all'inizio e, cioè, che quello italiano non fu uno Stato nuovo, ma prevalse la continuità con le istituzioni e l'apparato amministrativo sabaudo. Si navigò a vista, senza elaborare un piano di riforme volto a costruire in modo organico e duraturo, preferendo operare per adattamenti e giustapposizioni. È emerso piuttosto chiaramente che si intese assicurare in tempi brevi la costruzione di uno Stato centrale (e periferico) forte, comprimendo gradualmente, soprattutto a seguito dell'emersione della questione meridionale, l'autonomia degli enti locali e i progetti riformatori tendenti al decentramento. [From the investigation into the legislation of the four-year period 1861–64 carried out above, what was stated at the beginning is confirmed, that is, that the Italian state was not a new one, but continuity with the institutions and the administrative apparatus of Savoy prevailed. They navigated by sight, without developing a plan of reforms aimed at building in an organic and lasting way, preferring to operate by adaptations and juxtapositions. It emerged rather clearly that the intention was to ensure in a short time the construction of a strong central (and peripheral) state, gradually compressing, especially following the emergence of the Southern Question, the autonomy of local authorities, and reform projects tending towards decentralization.]
^Casùla, Francesco Cesare (2012). Italia. Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 (in Italian) (e-book ed.). Sassari; Ussana: Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book). pp. 32–49. ISBN978-88-98062-13-3. Retrieved 20 December 2024 – via Google Books. ... 1479, Regno di 'Sardegna e Corsica' malgrado non rappresentasse tutta la Sardegna e malgrado la Corsica non fosse interessata ma considerata solo ambita (non sarà mai conquistata). Poi, dal 1479, si chiamo solo Regno di Sardegna ... poi solo Regno di Sardegna (fino al 1861), poi Regno d'Italia (fino al 1946), e, finalmente, Repubblica Italiana. E, tutto questo, senza alcuna soluzione di continuità. [... 1479, Kingdom of 'Sardinia and Corsica' even though it did not represent all of Sardinia and even though Corsica was not interested but only considered coveted (it will never be conquered). Then, from 1479, it was called only the Kingdom of Sardinia ... then only the Kingdom of Sardinia (until 1861), then the Kingdom of Italy (until 1946), and, finally, the Italian Republic. And, all this, without any solution of continuity.]
Bibliography
Manno, Giuseppe (1999). Storia di Sardegna (in Italian). Vol. II. Nuoro: Ilisso Edizioni. ISBN88-85098-47-9.
Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). La storia di Sardegna: l'evo moderno e contemporaneo. La Storia di Sardegna (in Italian). Vol. 3. Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore. ISBN88-7138-063-0.
Pintus, Renato (2005). Sovrani, viceré di Sardegna e governatori di Sassari (in Italian). Sassari: Webber Editore.
Brigaglia, Manlio; Mastino, Attilio; Ortu, Gian Giacomo, eds. (2006). Storia della Sardegna: dalle origini al Settecento (in Italian). Sassari: Editori Laterza. ISBN88-420-7839-5.
Casula, Francesco Cesare (1994). Breve storia di Sardegna (in Italian). Sassari: Carlo Delfino Editore. ISBN88-7138-065-7.
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