Joseon missions to Japan

A drawing sent by the Joseon court in Korea to the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, c. 1748

Joseon missions to Japan represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual Joseon-Japanese contacts and communication.[1] In sum, these serial diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's kyorin (neighborly relations) diplomacy from 1392 to 1910.[citation needed]

The chronology of one side in a bilateral relationship stands on its own. This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the sadae (serving the great) diplomacy which characterized the Joseon-Chinese relations in this same period.[2]

The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical model would be modified. The changing model mirrors the evolution of a unique relationship between two neighboring states.[3] In the 20th century, Joseon's neighborly relations diplomacy failed.

Joseon diplomacy

Main article: Joseon diplomacy

General Yi Sŏng-gye (posthumously known as Taejo of Joseon) established the "Kingdom of Great Joseon" in 1392–1393, and he founded the Yi dynasty which would retain power on the Korean peninsula for five hundred years. An early achievement of the new monarch was improved relations with China; and indeed, Joseon had its origin in General Yi's refusal to attack China in response to raids from Chinese bandits.[4] The Joseon foreign policy would evolve from pre-existing foundations. For example, Goryeo envoy Chŏng Mong-ju travelled to Japan in 1377;[5] and the consequences of his efforts were only seen later.

As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.[6] Subsequent missions developed and nurtured the contacts and exchanges between the two neighboring countries.

Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.[7] A diplomatic mission conventionally consisted of three envoys—the main envoy, the vice-envoy, and a document official. Also included were one or more official writers or recorders who created a detailed account of the mission.[8] Artists were also included in the diplomatic delegation.

Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese shōguns of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power;[9][10] the actual political and military rulers of Japan with whom Joseon communicated were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in most foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentric world order in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".[11]

The history of Joseon Korea's diplomacy with Japan can be parsed in four parts: (a) before the Japanese invasions in 1592–1598; (b) in the context of the invasion; (c) after the invasion; and (d) in modern times.

Joseon missions to the Muromachi shogunate

See also: Joseon Tongsinsa § 15th–16th century diplomatic ventures

The Joseon diplomatic contacts and communication with Japan encompassed formal embassies to the Muromachi bakufu.[12] Joseon diplomacy also included the more frequent and less formal exchanges with the Japanese daimyo (feudal lord) of Tsushima Island.

In addition, trade missions between merchants of the area were commonplace. For example, more than 60 trade missions per year marked the period from 1450 through 1500.[13]

Year Sender Joseon chief envoy Japanese shōgun Official purpose
1392 Taejo – ? Ashikaga Yoshimitsu Re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries, remembering good relations which existed in ancient times[14]
1398 Taejo Pak Ton-ji.[15] Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys; and seeking help in suppression of pirate fleets, called waegu (왜구) in Korean or wakō (倭寇) in Japanese , Ōuchi Yoshihiro let him visit and Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the retired shōgun, sent him a letter with presents[12]
1404 Taejong Yeo Ui-son[12] Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys[16]
1406 Taejong Yun Myŏng[12] Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys[12]
1410 Taejong Yang Su[17] Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys; conveying condolences on the death of Yoshimitsu;[12] and offering to send a copy of a rare Buddhist text.[18]
1413 Taejong Bak Bun? Ashikaga Yoshimochi –?
1420 Sejong Song Hŭi-gyŏng[12] Ashikaga Yoshimochi Response envoys[12]
1423 Sejong Pak Hŭi-chung[19] Ashikaga Yoshikazu Response envoys;[12] and transporting a copy of a rare Buddhist text.[20]
1424 Sejong Pak An-sin[12] Ashikaga Yoshikazu Response envoys[12]
1428 Sejong Pak Sŏ-saeng[12] Ashikaga Yoshinori Condolences on the death of Yoshimochi; conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshinori[12]
1432 Sejong Yi Ye[21] Ashikaga Yoshinori Response envoys[12]
1439 Sejong Ko Tŭk-chong[12] Ashikaga Yoshinori Neighborly relations; and asking help in suppression of expanded waegu (wakō) activities.[12]
1443 Sejong Byeon Hyo-mun[22] Ashikaga Yoshimasa Condolences on the death of Yoshinori; and conveying congratulations on the succession of Yoshikatsu[12]

1392

In the 1st year of the reign of King Taejo of Joseon, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[6]

1398

In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12] Pak Tong-chi and his retinue arrived in Kyoto in the early autumn of 1398 (Ōei 5, 8th month). Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi presented the envoy with a formal diplomatic letter; and presents were given for the envoy to convey to the Joseon court.[23]

1404

In the 4th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]

1406

In the 6th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]

1409–1410

In the 10th year of King Taejong's reign, an ambassador from the Joseon court was received in Kyoto. This event in 1409 (Ōei 16, 3rd month) was considered significant.[24]

1413

In the 13th year of King Taejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]

1420

In the 2nd year of the reign of King Sejong the Great, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]

1423

In the 5th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12][20]

1424

In the 6th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[12]

1428

In the 10th year of King Sejong's reign, the Joseon court dispatched Pak Sŏ-saeng as chief envoy of a mission to the shogunal court of Ashikaga Yoshinori in Japan.[12]

1432

In the 14th year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan.[25]

1439

In the 21st year of King Sejong's reign, a diplomatic mission was sent to Japan. The leader of this embassy to shōgun Yoshinori was Ko Tŭk-chong.[12]

1443

In the 25th year of King Sejong's reign, an embassy was sent to the Japanese capital. Byeon Hyo-mun was the chief envoy sent by the Joseon court.[26] The ambassador was received in Kyoto by Ashikaga Yoshimasa.[12]

Joseon missions to Hideyoshi

Main article: Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)

After the fall of the Ashikaga shogunate, the Joseon diplomatic missions to Japan were dispatched to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who emerged as an unchallenged strong man and leader after the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582.[12] The less formal contacts with the leaders of the Sō clan on Tsushima continued.

Diplomatic relations were severed in 1592 when Japanese armies invaded Joseon territory. The ruptured bilateral relations were not restored immediately after the death of Hideyoshi in 1598; the invading forces gradually withdrew from occupied land on the Korean peninsula.[27] By the end of 1598 all Japanese forces had left Korea, but relations would not be normalized until several years later, during the Tokugawa shogunate.

Year Sender Joseon chief envoy Taiko[28] Official purpose
1590 Seonjo Hwang Yun-gil[29] Toyotomi Hideyoshi Congratulations on the unification of Hideyoshi[12]
1596 Seonjo Hwang Sin[30] Toyotomi Hideyoshi Negotiating end of hostilities, withdrawal of invading Japanese forces.[31]

1590

In the 23rd year of the reign of King Seonjo, a diplomatic mission led by Hwang Yun-gil was sent by the Joseon court to Japan.[29] The Joseon ambassador was received by the Japanese leader, Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[12]

1596

In the 29th year of King Seonjo's reign, a diplomatic mission headed by Hwang Sin accompanied the Ming ambassadors who traveled to Japan.[30]

Joseon missions to the Tokugawa shogunate

Main article: Joseon Tongsinsa § 17th-19th century diplomatic ventures

After the Japanese invaders were repulsed, Korean-Japanese diplomatic relations had to be re-established and normalized; they ultimately took on a somewhat different form than prior to 1592.[32] For starters, Japanese envoys/missions were restricted to the waegwan in Busan and prohibited from traveling to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) by the Joseon court (as the Japanese invasion forces in 1592 used the same land route in Korea as prior Japanese missions had).[33] Further, the missions from Joseon were no longer greeted in Japan by military commanders but only diplomats. Lastly, the costs of the Korean missions were entirely paid for by the Japanese, which by some estimates equaled the Tokugawa shogunate's entire annual budget in the years that they were dispatched.[33]

The Joseon court also did not resume using the term tongsinsa for missions to Japan until the 1636 mission, as the term was only used for missions under conditions of normalized relations.[34]

Year Sender Joseon chief envoy Japanese shōgun Official purpose
1607 Seonjo Yŏ Ugil[35] Tokugawa Hidetada Responding to Japanese invitation; observation of internal Japanese political situation; repatriation of prisoners.[36]
1617 Gwanghaegun O Yun'gyŏm[37] Tokugawa Hidetada Responding to Japanese invitation; congratulations on victory in Siege of Osaka; repatriation of prisoners.[38]
1624 Injo Chŏng Ip[39] Tokugawa Iemitsu Responding to Japanese invitation; congratulations on succession of shōgun Iemitsu; repatriation of prisoners.[40]
1636 Injo Im Kwang[41] Tokugawa Iemitsu Celebrating prosperity.[42]
1643 Injo Yun Sunji[43] Tokugawa Iemitsu Celebrating birthday of shōgun Iemitsu.[44]
1655 Hyojong Cho Hyŏng[45] Tokugawa Ietsuna Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ietsuna.[46]
1682 Sukjong Yun Jiwan[47] Tokugawa Tsunayoshi Congratulions on the succession of shōgun Tsunayoshi.[48]
1711 Sukjong Jo Tae-eok[49] Tokugawa Ienobu Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienobu.[50]
1719 Sukjong Hong Ch'ijung[51] Tokugawa Yoshimune Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Yoshimune.[52]
1748 Yeongjo Hong Kyehŭi[53] Tokugawa Ieshige Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieshige.[54]
1764 Yeongjo Jo Eom[55] Tokugawa Ieharu Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ieharu.[56]
1811 Sunjo Kim Igyo[37] Tokugawa Ienari Congratulations on the succession of shōgun Ienari.[57]

1607

In the 40th year of the reign of King Seonjo of Joseon,[36] representatives of the Joseon court were dispatched to Japan. This diplomatic mission functioned to the advantage of both the Japanese and the Koreans as a channel for developing a political foundation for trade.[58] This embassy traveled to Edo for an audience with shōgun Tokugawa Hidetada in the 12th year of Keicho, according to the Japanese era name in use at this time.[36] Yŏ Ugil was the chief Joseon envoy;[35] and there was 467 others accompanying him.[36]

1617

In the 9th year of the reign of King Gwanghaegun of Joseon,[38] the Joseon court dispatched a mission to Edo; but the embassy travelled only as far as Kyoto. The delegation was received by shōgun Hidetada at Fushimi Castle[59] in the 3rd year of Genna, as the Japanese reckoned time.[38] The chief envoy was O Yun'gyŏm[37] and there were 428 others in his party.[38]

1624

In the 2nd year of the reign of King Injo of Joseon,[40] a delegation was sent to Edo with Chŏng Ip as its chief envoy.[37] The size of this diplomatic numbered 460.[40] shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu received the ambassador in Edo.[39] The Joseon embassy was considered a significant event in the 1st year of Kan'ei, according to the Japanese calendar,[40]

1636

In the 14th year of King Injo's reign, a diplomatic mission (the first to be titled tongsinsa since the severing of relations in 1592,[60] thus formally indicating full normalization of relations) was sent to Japan.[42] The ambassador of the Joseon king was Im Kwang;[41] and he was accompanied by 478 others.[42] According to the Japanese calendar, the mission reached Japan in 1635 (Kan'ei 13, 12th month).[61] This mission to the court of shōgun Iemitsu in Edo also encompassed a pilgrimage to the first shogun's mausoleum at Nikkō.[62] The grand procession of the shogun, which included the large Joseon contingent, travelled from Edo to Nikko in the 4th month of the 14th year of Kan'ei.[61]

1643

In the 21st year of King Injo's reign,[44] a mission to Edo was led by Yun Sunji.[63] The size of the Joseon delegation was 477.[44] The delegation arrived at the shogunal court in Edo on the 20th year of Kan'ei, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.[64] This delegation was received in the court of shōgun Iemitsu; and they also completed a visit to shōgun Ieaysu's mausoleum at Nikkō.[59]

1655

The Korean envoy and his retinue in the 1655 Joseon Tongsinsa to Edo – print attributed to Hishikawa Moronobu, 1618–1694

In the 6th year of the reign of King Hyojong of Joseon, the Joseon court sent a mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ietsuna.[46] This mission arrived in Japan during the 1st year of Meireki, according to in the Japanese dating system.[65] Cho Hyŏng was the chief envoy of the Joseon embassy,[45] and his retinue numbered 485.[46] After the embassy was received in the shogunate court at Edo; and the delegation proceeded the Tōshō-gū at Nikkō.[59]

1682

In the 8th year of the reign of King Sukjong of Joseon, a diplomatic mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi was dispatched from the Joseon court.[48] Yun Jiwan was the chief emissary;[37] and he was accompanied by 473 others, traveling to Edo during the 2nd year of Tenna according to the Japanese calendar.[48]

1711

In the 37th year King Sukjong's reign, an envoy was sent to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ienobu.[50] This embassy arrived in the 1st year of Shōtoku, according to the Japanese calendar.[66] Jo Tae-eok was the chief envoy of this diplomatic embassy;[37] and the size of his delegation numbered 500.[50]

1719

In the 45th year of King Sukjong's reign, an embassy was dispatched to Japan.[52] The Joseon envoy and his party arrived in Japan in the 10th month of the 4th year of Kyōhō, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar in use at that time.[67] King Sukjong sent Hong Ch'ijung with a retinue of 475.[52] The Joseon ambassador was granted an audience with shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune.

1748

This image of a Joseon tongsinsa procession through the streets of Edo in 1748 is entitled Chosenjin Ukie by Hanegawa Tōei, c. 1748.

In the 24th year of the reign of King Yeongjo of Joseon, the Joseon court sent a diplomatic mission to Japan.[54] The Joseon envoy and his retinue arrived in Edo in the 1st year of Kan'en, according to the Japanese calendar.[68] The chief envoy of this Joseon delegation was Hong Kyehŭi;[53] and he was accompanied by 475 others.[54]

1764

In the 40th year of King Yeongjo's reign, a diplomatic envoy was dispatched to Japan.[56] This mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ieharu arrived in the shogunal capital the 1st year of Meiwa, as reckoned by the Japanese calendar.[69] Jo Eom was the chief envoy in 1764;[70] and 477 traveled with him.[56] The renowned Edo period poet Fukuda Chiyo-ni was chosen to prepare the official Japanese gift presented to the Korean Delegation, and she crafted and delivered 21 artworks based on her 21 haiku.[71] This ambassador is important historical figure because he is credited with introducing sweet potatoes as a food crop in Korea.[72] The "new" food staple was encountered during the course of this diplomatic mission.[73]

1811

In the 11th year of the reign of King Sunjo of Joseon, the king sent a mission to the shogunal court of Tokugawa Ienari.[57] The embassy did not travel any further than Tsushima. The representatives of shōgun Ienari met the mission on the island which is located in the middle of the Korea Strait between the Korean Peninsula and Kyushu.[70] The chief envoy of this mission was Kim Igyo;[37] and there were 336 in his retinue.[57]

Joseon-Japan diplomacy adapting

Joseon-Japanese bilateral relations were affected by the increasing numbers of international contacts which required adaptation and a new kind of diplomacy.[74] Japan's Sakoku period ("closed country") ended in 1854, altering all regional relations for Japan.[75]

1876

The Korea-Japan Treaty of 1876 marked the beginning of a new phase in bilateral relations.[74]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 한일관계사연구논집편찬위원회. (2005). 통신사・왜관과한일관계 (Han Il kwangyesa yŏngu nonjip), Vol. 6, p. 29.
  2. ^ Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century, p. 49.
  3. ^ Toby, Ronald P. (1991). State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, p. 87.
  4. ^ Hussain, Tariq. (2006). Diamond Dilemma: Shaping Korea for the 21st Century, p. 45; Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914: A-K, p. 401.
  5. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 313; Korea-Japan Relations> Middle Ages> 4. Waegu and the Korea-Japan Relationship. Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  6. ^ a b Titsingh, p. 320.
  7. ^ Lewis, James Bryant. Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 269 n. 89, citing Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu (1996) by Na Chongpu.
  8. ^ Walraven, Boudewign et al. (2007). Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies, p. 362.
  9. ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (2008). The Emperors of Modern Japan. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004168220.
  10. ^ Shillony, Ben-Ami (January 24, 2012). Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders. Tuttle. ISBN 9781462903962.
  11. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 206.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275.
  13. ^ Ferris, William. (2009). Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History, 181.
  14. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 320.
  15. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Titsingh, p. 322
  16. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 275; Hall, John Whitney. (1997). The Cambridge History of Japan: Early Modern Japan, p. 242.
  17. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 39.
  18. ^ Titsingh, pp. 325–326.
  19. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 72.
  20. ^ a b Titsingh, p. 330.
  21. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology. p. 275; Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.
  22. ^ Kang, Jae-eun, and Suzanne Lee. (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342.
  23. ^ Titsingh, p. 322.
  24. ^ Titsingh, pp. 325–326.
  25. ^ Lee, Sang Oak et al. (1998). Perspectives on Korea, p. 268.
  26. ^ Kang, Land of Scholars, p. 241; Titsingh, p. 342.
  27. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 86.
  28. ^ Taikō (太閤) a title given to a retired Kampaku regent in Japan; a title commonly associated with Toyotomi Hideyoshi
  29. ^ a b Rutt, Richard et al. (2003). Korea: a Historical and Cultural Dictionary, p. 190.
  30. ^ a b Palais, James B. Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the late Chosŏn Dynasty, p. 83; n.b., this source equates the term "formal ambassador" with "tongsinsa", without reference to signifying "normalized" bilateral relations.
  31. ^ Kang, Diplomacy and Ideology, p. 225.
  32. ^ Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). The Korean struggle for International identity, p. 44.
  33. ^ a b "Early Modern Period." Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2007 Archived 28 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, pp. 21–24.
  35. ^ a b Kang, p. 144.
  36. ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation Archived March 3, 2009, at the Wayback Machine: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesarok (Records of Overseas Mission) by Gyeong Seom.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g Walraven, Boudewijn et al. (2007). Korea in the middle: Korean studies and area studies, p. 361.
  38. ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsasang illok (Daily Records of Mission to Japan) by Oh Yun-gyeom; Dongsa ilgi (Diary of Mission to Japan) by Bak Jae; and Busangnok (Journal of Travel to Japan) by Yi Gyeong-jik.
  39. ^ a b Toby, p. 70.
  40. ^ a b c d Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok (Record of Mission to Japan) by Kang Hong-jung.
  41. ^ a b Toby, p. 205–207; Titsingh, p. 411; n.b., the name Nin kwô is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Jin kuang is a pre-McCune–Reischauer, Korean romanization devised by Julius Klaproth and Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat in 1834.
  42. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Byeongja ilbon ilgi (Diary of Travel to Japan in 1636) by Im Gwang; Haesarok by Kim Seryeom; and Dongsarok by Hwang Ho.
  43. ^ Toby, p. 105; Titsingh, p. 412; n.b., the name Inzioun si is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
  44. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Jo Gyeong; Haesarok by Sin Yu; and Gyemi dongsarok (Records of 1643 Mission to Japan) by an unidentified writer.
  45. ^ a b Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 413; n.b., the name Tcho ying is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao hing is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
  46. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Busang ilgi (Diary of Travel to Japan) by Jogyeong; and Busangnok by Nam Yong-ik.
  47. ^ Cultural Heritage Administration, Name of Cultural Properties, Yakjojechalbi (Stele of agreement), 2006.
  48. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsa illok (Daily Records of Travel to Japan) by Kim Jinam; and Dongsarok by Hong U-jae.
  49. ^ Kim, Tae-Jun. (2006). Korean Travel Literature. p. 119; Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 416; n.b., the name Tota Yokf is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao ta ỹ is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
  50. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Jo Tae-eok; Dongsarok by Kim Hyeon-mun; and Dongsarok by Im Su-gan.
  51. ^ Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 417; n.b., the name Kô tsi tsiou is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Hong tschi tchoung is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
  52. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesa illok (Daily Records of Overseas Mission) by Hong Chi-jung; Haeyurok (Records of Sea Voyage) by Shin Yu-han; Busang gihaeng (Journal of Travel to Japan) by Jeong Hu-gyo; and Busangnok by Kim Heup.
  53. ^ a b Walraven, p. 361; Titsingh, p. 418; n.b., the name Tcho ying is a pre-Hepburn Japanese transliteration and Tchao hing is a pre-McCune–Reischauer Korean romanization devised by Klaproth et al. in 1834.
  54. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Bongsa ilbon si mun gyeonnik (Observation of the Janpanese Culture) by Jo Myeong-chae; Susa illok (Daily Records of Observations) by Hong Gyeong-hae; and Ilbon ilgi (Diary in Japan) by an unidentified writer.
  55. ^ 염정섭 (Yeom Jeong-Seop). 조선 후기 고구마의 도입과 재배법의 정리 과정 ("The Introduction of Sweet Potatoes and the Development of Cultivation Methods during Late Joseon Korea"), 韩国史硏究 No. 134, January 2006. pp. 111–147.
  56. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Haesa ilgi (Diary of Overseas Mission) by Jo Eom; Gyemi sahaeng ilgi (Diary of 1764 Mission to Japan) by Oh Dae-ryeong; and Ilbonnok (Record of Japan) by Seong Dae-jung.
  57. ^ a b c Northeast Asia History Foundation: Korea-Japan relations Archived October 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine citing Dongsarok by Yusang-pil; and Doyurok (Record of Voyage to Japan) by Kim Cheong-san.
  58. ^ Walker, p. 48; Guilliaume, Xavier. (2003). "Misdirected Understanding: Narrative Matrices in the Japanese Politics of Alterity toward the West", pp. 85–116 in Jahrbuch des Deutschen Instituts für Japanstudien.
  59. ^ a b c Toby, p. 105 n16.
  60. ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier contact between Chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan, pp. 21–24.
  61. ^ a b Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des emperors du japon, p. 411.
  62. ^ Toby, p. 105 n16; Walker, p. 50.
  63. ^ Toby, p. 105; Titsingh, p. 412.
  64. ^ Titsingh, p. 412.
  65. ^ Titsingh, p. 413.
  66. ^ Titsingh, p. 416.
  67. ^ Titsingh, p. 417.
  68. ^ Titsingh, p. 418.
  69. ^ Titsingh, p. 419.
  70. ^ a b Walraven, p. 359.
  71. ^ "haikukan.city.hakusan.ishikawa.jp". Archived from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  72. ^ Kim, Jinwung. (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict, p. 255.
  73. ^ Wiwŏnhoe, p. 305.
  74. ^ a b Kang, Woong Joe. (2005). Struggle for Identity, pp. 38–78.
  75. ^ W. G. Beasley, The Meiji Restoration, ISBN 978-1503608269

References