Dinocysts or dinoflagellate cysts are typically 15 to 100 μm in diameter and produced by dinoflagellates as a dormant, zygotic stage of their lifecycle, which can accumulate in the sediments as microfossils.[1] Organic-walled dinocysts are often resistant and made out of dinosporin. There are also calcareous dinoflagellate cysts and siliceous dinoflagellate cysts.
History
The first person to recognize fossil dinoflagellates was Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, who reported his discovery in a paper presented to the Berlin Academy of Sciences in July 1836. He had observed clearly tabulate dinoflagellates in thin flakes of Cretaceous flint and considered those dinoflagellates to have been silicified. Along with them, and of comparable size, were spheroidal to ovoidal bodies bearing an array of spines or tubes of variable character. Ehrenberg interpreted these as being originally siliceous and thought them to be desmids (freshwater conjugating algae), placing them within his own Recent desmid genus Xanthidium. Though summaries of Ehrenberg's work appeared earlier, it was not published in full until 1837 or 1838; the date is uncertain.[2]
A first relation between dinoflagellate thecae and cysts was made through morphological comparison of both by Bill Evitt and Susan E. Davidson.[3] Further evidence came from detailed culture studies of dinoflagellate cysts by David Wall and Barrie Dale at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in the sixties.[4][5]
Types of cysts
Ontologically, the term cyst can apply to (1) a temporary resting state (pellicle, temporary or ecdysal cyst), (2) a dormant zygote (resting cysts or hypnozygotes) or (3) a coccoid condition in which the cells are still photosynthetically active.[6] For example, for this last special case, all cysts described from species of the order Phytodiniales (e.g. Cystodinium, Stylodinium, Hypnodinium, Tetradinium, Dinococcus, Gloeodinium), are coccoid stages.
Digestive cyst or digestion cysts denote pellicle cysts formed after feeding by phagocytosis as in Katodinium fungiforme.[7][8]
Division cysts refer to non-motile division stages wherein asexual reproduction takes place through division.[9] These are not pellicle or resting cysts since they are not dormant. Similarly, palmelloid or mucilage stages are not pellicle or resting cysts, but stages in which the monad loses its flagella and becomes enveloped in multilayered mucilage wherein division takes place.[10]
Taxonomy
Dinoflagellate cysts described in the literature have been linked to a particular motile stage through morphological similarities and/or co-occurrence in the same population/culture or through the technique of establishing the so-called cyst-theca relation by incubation of the cysts.[11][5][12][13] Geologists use a cyst-based taxonomy, whilst biologists use a motile-stage based taxonomy. Therefore, cysts can have different names than the corresponding motile stages. Living cysts can be easily isolated from the sediment using sodium polytungstate, a heavy liquid.[14] Another method, rarely used, uses a sucrose gradient.[15] Recent times have brought about the possibility to get molecular sequences from single cysts or single cells.[16][17][18] The proportion of cyst-forming species for marine dinoflagellates is between 15 and 20%[19] and for freshwater dinoflagellates 24%.[20]
The tabulation of the Dinoflagellate is sometimes mirrored in the tabulation (previously called paratabulation) of the dinocyst, allowing species to be deduced from the cyst.[21]
It has previously been suggested that morphological characters from the cyst stage may be phylogenetically important in marine species[22] and this may to an even greater extent be the case for freshwater dinoflagellates,[23] confirmed by new observations[24][25] and recently reviewed.[20]
Several books document general cyst taxonomy.[21][26]
There are few guides for determination of marine Quaternary dinocysts.[27][28] Many new species are still being described for the Neogene,[29] which covers the Miocene,[30][31] the Pliocene[32][33][34][35] and the Quaternary, which covers the Pleistocene[36] and recent.[37][38][39]
Size
Quaternary dinocysts are typically between 15 and 100 μm in diameter.[40] One of the smallest recent cysts is the cyst of Pentapharsodinium dalei, which can be as small as 19 μm in length.[41] One of the largest recent cysts is the cyst of Protoperidinium latissimum, which can be as large as 100 μm in length.[5]
Composition
The walls of organic-walled dinocysts are composed of the resistant biopolymer called dinosporin.[42] This organic compound has similarities to sporopollenin, but is unique to dinoflagellates.
In pure morphological terms, a dinocyst can be described as the body formed by the cyst wall, as well as the space it encloses and all the spaces within it.[43] Cysts may develop their wall immediately within the theca, and such cysts are called proximate. Alternatively, the cyst may comprise a more or less spherical central body with processes or crests, and such cysts are termed chorate or proximochorate. Cysts may have a single-layered wall (autophragm), a two-layered wall (comprising an outer periphragm and an inner endophragm) or a three-layered wall (ectophragm, periphragm and endophragm if the outer wall is structurally supported, or otherwise periphragm, mesophragm and endophragm). Cysts with two or more wall layers that define a cavity are termed cavate. Excystment usually results in loss of part of, or an opening in, the cyst wall, termed archeopyle, the shape and position of which may indicate the position and/or shape of one or more thecal plates.[21]
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies (e.g.[44]) suggest that endophragm and periphragm are not morphologically separable. Therefore, the use of the terms pedium and luxuria are suggested instead.[45]
Within the cyst wall, a thick cellulose-like layer called the endospore is present which is birefringent under crossed nichols.[46]
Cysts may be identified using the overall body shape but more often based on the characteristic furrows housing the flagella (cingulum and sulcus) or details of the patterns of plates covering many motiles (thecal tabulation).
The one distinctive feature common to all cysts is the excystment opening (archaeopyle) through which the emerging new motile stage exits. In many cases this reflects a recognizable part of the tabulation (one or more plates). However, one large group of dinoflagellates (athecate - or naked dinoflagellates) do not have thecal plates and therefore produce cysts lacking all forms of reflected tabulation.[47]
Cyst ultrastructure
There have been very few ultrastructural studies of marine cysts with TEM, except for early on Hystrichosphaea bentorii, on Hystrichosphaeridium, Impletosphaeridium, Lingulodinium machaerophorum and Operculodinium centrocarpum and Bitectatodinium tepikiense[44][48][49] and more recent work on Lingulodinium machaerophorum[50] and Alexandrium.[51]
Some freshwater cysts have been investigated with TEM, such as Ceratium hirundinella.[52]
Relation to life cycle
Resting cysts are traditionally associated with the sexual cycle of dinoflagellates.[53] Induced by particular triggers such as changes in temperature, nutrients,[54] etc., dinoflagellates undergo gamete formation. The gametes fuse to form the planozygote and undergo encystment: they form cysts within the thecae of the planozygote. These rapidly sink to the sediment. Many species may spend longer periods resting in the sediment than active in the water column.[55] Resting stages also constitute a reservoir of genetic diversity, which increases the survival potential of the populations.[56] Thus, dinoflagellate cysts have great ecological importance and act as "seed banks", comparable to those found in terrestrial ecosystems. The encysted forms may remain viable for up to 100 years.[57] Sediment can be stored with live Lingulodinium cysts for at least 18 months.[58]
Cysts often need triggers to germinate ('excyst'), such as changes in temperature, nutrients, etc. Some cysts, such as Scrippsiella acuminata, require light to germinate.[59]
Distribution and ecology of organic-walled dinocysts
Dinocyst distribution is mainly studied through studies of surface sediments.[60] Many studies are regional, such as the Iberian Margin[61] the North Sea,[62] Kiel bight,[63] Celtic Sea,[64] Norwegian Sea,[65] around Iceland,[66] the Southeast Pacific,[67] the Arctic,[68][69] Equatorial Atlantic,[70] South and Equatorial Atlantic,[71] off West Africa,[72] the Southern Ocean,[73] Benguela upwelling,[74] in the Mediterranean Sea,[75] Caspian Sea,[76] British Columbia,[77] The Northeastern Pacific,[78] Florida,[79] Mexico[80] and Barends Sea.[81]
Such surface sediment studies show that dinoflagellate cyst distribution is controlled by ranges of temperature, salinity and nutrients.[82] This often poses biogeographical boundaries, more particularly temperature.[83] Some species can be clearly related to cold waters.[84] Recent molecular work has shown the presence of such cold-water indicator, a life-stage of Islandinium sp. in Canadian sea-ice for the first time.[85] Other species are thermophilic, such as the "living fossil" Dapsilidinium pastielsii currently found in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool only.[86]
Cysts can be transported via ocean-currents, which can distort ecological signals. This has been documented for the warm water species Operculodinium israelianum and Polysphaeridium zoharyi which were interpreted to have been transported along the Southern coast of the United States.[60] Cyst are also often transported from the inner shelf to the outer shelf or slope.[60]
Another problem with cysts is that they also get transported with ballast water, which can cause introduction of invasive species.[90]
Palynodinium, a fossil species of dinoflagellate cyst, is used to demarcate the K/Pg boundary, which marks the terminal Cretaceous and the extinction of the dinosaurs.[111]
Such reconstructions can be done via semi-quantitative techniques, such as ordination techniques,[47] which can indicate trends in environmental parameters.
Also during the Neogene, dinocysts have shown to be useful in the Miocene[128] and particularly the Messinian.[129]
Also the paleoclimate of the Pliocene has been investigated.[130][131][132] Transfer functions have also been attempted during the Pliocene.[133] Some species have been suggested to have different environmental preferences during the Neogene.[134]
The palaeoecology of freshwater dinoflagellate cysts is relatively unexplored, though several recent studies have shown the relation to changes in nutrients, pH and temperature[135][136][137][138]
Morphological variation of organic-walled dinocysts
There is little known about how organic-walled dinocysts are formed except from culture experiments.[139] Cyst formation is suggested to happen through self-assembly processes.[140]
Organic-walled dinocyst morphology is shown to be controlled by changes in salinity and temperature in some species, more particularly process length variation. This is known to be the case for Lingulodinium machaerophorum from culture experiments,[141] and study of surface sediments.[142] Also variations in the morphology of the species Operculodinium centrocarpum [143][144] can be related to salinity and/or temperature. Also cysts of the species Gonyaulax baltica shows morphological variations in culture,[145] as well as Gonyaulax spinifera.[146] Cyst formed by other species such as Pyrophacus steinii (cyst is called Tuberculodinium vancampoae) do not show a clear relation to variations in salinity.[147]
The morphological variation can be applied for the reconstruction of salinity, in a semi-quantitative[148] or quantitative way.[143] Process length variation of Lingulodinium machaerophorum has been used to reconstruct Black Sea salinity variation.[149]
Biostratigraphy and evolution of organic-walled dinocysts
Organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts have a long geological record with lowest occurrences during the mid Triassic,[150] whilst geochemical markers suggest a presence to the Early Cambrian.[151] Some of the Paleozoicacritarchs possibly are related to dinoflagellate cysts. Arpylorus, from the Silurian of North Africa, was at one time considered to be a dinoflagellate cyst,[152] but this palynomorph is now considered probably an arthropod remain.[153] Another enigmatic form with possible early dinoflagellate affinity is Palaeodinophysis altaica, which was found in the Devonian of Kazakhstan,[154] however Fensome et al. (1999) consider its dinoflagellate affinity (and also supposed age) unlikely.[155]
The fossil record supports a major adaptive radiation of dinoflagellates during later Triassic and earlier Jurassic times. The majority of living thecate dinoflagellates can be interpreted as having either a peridinalean or gonyaulacalean tabulation, and that these tabulations, and hence the orders Gonyaulacales and Peridiniales, have been separate since at least the Early Jurassic.[21]
The biostratigraphical application of dinoflagellate cysts has been thoroughly studied.[156][157]
The Pliocene has been recently investigated[158][159] and also the Miocene.[160]
Palynological methods
Organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts are extracted using palynological methods, which can be highly variable between different palynological laboratories, and often involve use of hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF) and/or alternative acids at different temperatures.[161][162][163][164] The use of KOH or acetolysis is not advised in dinocyst studies, because this causes swelling and/or destruction of dinocysts.
The palynological method can cause difficulty in identification of certain species: it has been shown that cysts of Alexandrium tamarense and of Scrippsiella trifida are difficult to discriminate in samples that have been treated with the palynological method.[165]
The concentration of Dinocysts can be quantified by adding an exotic spike or marker such as Lycopodium clavatum spores.[166][167][168]
Biological functions
Dinocysts are suggested to have a number of adaptive functions including survival during adverse conditions, bloom initiation and termination, dispersal in time, a seed bank for genetic diversity and dispersal in space.[169][170][171]
^W.A.S. Sarjeant, 2002. 'As chimney-sweeps, come to dust': a history of palynology to 1970. pp. 273–327 In: Oldroyd, D. R. The earth inside and out: some major contributions to geology in the twentieth century. Geological Society (London) Special Publication no. 192.
^Evitt, W.R. and Davidson, S.E. 1964. Dinoflagellate studies. 1. Dinoflagellate cysts and thecae. Stanford university publications X (1), pp. 3–12.
^Pfiester L.A. & Anderson D.M. 1987. Dinoflagellate reproduction. In: The biology of dinoflagellates. Botanical monographs 21 (Ed. by F.J.R. Taylor), pp. 611–648., Blackwell Scientific Publications.
^Sarjeant, W.A.S.; Lacalli, T.; Gaines, G. (1987). "The cysts and skeletal elements of dinoflagellates: speculations on the ecological causes for their morphology and development". Micropaleontology. 33 (1): 1–36. Bibcode:1987MiPal..33....1S. doi:10.2307/1485525. JSTOR1485525.
^BRAVO I., FIGUEROA R.I., GARCÉS E., FRAGA S. & MASSANET A. 2010. The intricacies of dinoflagellate pellicle cysts: the example of Alexandrium minutum cysts from a bloom-recurrent area (Bay of Baiona, NW Spain). Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 57: 166–174.
^POPOVSKÝ J. & PFIESTER L.A. 1990. Dinophyceae (Dinoflagellida). In: Süßwasserflora von Mitteleuropa. Begründet von A. Pascher. Band 6 (Ed. by H. Ettl,J. Gerloff,H. Heynig. & D. Mollenhauer). Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 272 pp.
^Sonneman, J.A.; Hill, D.R.A. (1997). "A taxonomic survey of cyst-producing dinoflagellates from recent sediments of Victorian coastal waters, Australia". Botanica Marina. 40 (1–6): 149–177. doi:10.1515/botm.1997.40.1-6.149. S2CID84402741.
^Mertens, K.N.; Yamaguchi, A.; Kawami, H.; Ribeiro, S.; Leander, B.S.; Price, A.M.; Pospelova, V.; Ellegaard, M.; Matsuoka, K. (2012). "Archaeperidinium saanichi sp. nov.: a new species based on morphological variation of cyst and theca within the Archaeperidinium minutum Jörgensen 1912 species complex". Marine Micropaleontology. 96–97: 48–62. Bibcode:2012MarMP..96...48M. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2012.08.002.
^Bolch, C.J.S. (1997). "The use of polytungstate for the separation and concentration of living dinoflagellate cysts from marine sediments". Phycologia. 36 (6): 472–478. doi:10.2216/i0031-8884-36-6-472.1.
^Kawami, H.; Van Wezel, R.; Koeman, R.P.; Matsuoka, K. (2009). "Protoperidinium tricingulatum sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new motile form of a round, brown, and spiny dinoflagellate cyst". Phycological Research. 57 (4): 259–267. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.2009.00545.x. S2CID82954522.
^HEAD M.J. 1996. Modern dinoflagellate cysts and their biological affinities. In: Palynology: principles and applications (Ed. by J. Jansonius & D. C. McGregor), pp. 1197–1248. American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, Dallas, Texas.
^ abNeil Mertens, Kenneth; Rengefors, Karin; Moestrup, Øjvind; Ellegaard, Marianne (2012). "A review of recent freshwater dinoflagellate cysts: taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology and palaeocology". Phycologia. 51 (6): 612–619. Bibcode:2012Phyco..51..612M. doi:10.2216/11-89.1. S2CID86845462.
^ abcdFensome, R.A.; Taylor, F.J.R.; Norris, G.; Sarjeant, W.A.S.; Wharton, D.I.; Williams, G.L. (1993). "A classification of living and fossil dinoflagellates". American Museum of Natural History, Micropaleontology, Special Publication. 7: 1–351.
^Harland, R (1982). "A review of Recent and Quaternary organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts of the genus Protoperidinium". Palaeontology. 25: 369–397.
^Schilling, A.J. (1891). "Die Süsswasser-Peridineen". Flora Oder Allgemeine Botanische Zeitung. 74: 220–299.
^Tardio, M.; Ellegaard, M.; Lundholm, N.; Sangiorgi, F.; DI Giuseppe, D. (2009). "A hypocystal archeopyle in a freshwater dinoflagellate from the Peridinium umbonatum group (Dinophyceae) from Lake Nero di Cornisello, South-East Alps, Italy". European Journal of Phycology. 44 (2): 1–10. Bibcode:2009EJPhy..44..241T. doi:10.1080/09670260802588442. S2CID83927778.
^Moestrup, Ø.; Lindberg, K.; Daugbjerg, N. (2009). "Studies on woloszynskioid dinoflagellates IV: The genus Biecheleria gen. nov". Phycological Research. 57 (3): 203–220. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.2009.00540.x. S2CID86137363.
^Evitt, W.R., Lentin, J.K., Millioud, M.E., Stover, L.E. and Williams, G.L., 1977. Dinoflagellate cyst terminology. Geological survey of Canada, Paper 76-24, 1-11.
^Rochon, A., de Vernal, A., Turon, J.-L., Matthiessen, J., and Head, M.J., 1999. Distribution of recent dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments from the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas in relation to sea-surface parameters. AASP Contribution Series, 35, 146 pp.
^MATSUOKA, K. & FUKUYO, Y. 2000. Technical guide for modern dinoflagellate cyst study. WESTPAC-HAB/WESTPAC/IOC, Japan Society of the Promotion Science, Tokyo, 29 pp.
^Head, M.J.; Norris, G. (2003). "New species of dinoflagellate cysts and other palynomorphs from the late Neogene of the western North Atlantic, DSDP Hole 603C". Journal of Paleontology. 77: 1–15. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2003)077<0001:nsodca>2.0.co;2.
^Louwye, S.; Mertens, K.N.; Vercauteren, D. (2008). "New dinoflagellate cysts species from the Miocene of Porcupine Basin, off Southwest Ireland". Palynology. 32: 131–142. doi:10.2113/gspalynol.32.1.131.
^Soliman, A., Head, M.J., and Louwye, S. In press. Morphology and distribution of the Miocene dinoflagellate cyst Operculodinium? borgerholtense Louwye 2001, emend. Palynology.
^Head, M.J., 1999. The Late Pliocene St. Erth Beds of Cornwall: a review of the palynology and reappraisal of the dinoflagellates. In: Scource, J. and Furze, M.F.A. (eds.), The Quaternary of West Cornwall. Field Guide, Quaternary Research Association, Durham, U.K., p. 88–92.
^Head, M.J. 2000. Geonettia waltonensis, a new goniodomacean dinoflagellate from the Pliocene of the North Atlantic region, and its evolutionary implications" Journal of Paleontology 74(5): 812–827, 6 pls.
^De Schepper, S.; Head, M.J.; Louwye, S. (2004). "New dinoflagellate cyst and incertae sedis taxa from the Pliocene of northern Belgium, southern North Sea Basin". Journal of Paleontology. 78 (4): 625–644. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2004)078<0625:ndcais>2.0.co;2. S2CID131328767.
^De Schepper, S.; Head, M.J. (2008). "New dinoflagellate cyst and acritarch taxa from the Pliocene and Pleistocene of the eastern North Atlantic (DSDP Site 610)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 6 (1): 101–117. Bibcode:2008JSPal...6..101D. doi:10.1017/s1477201907002167. S2CID54847659.
^Verleye, T.; Pospelova, V.; Mertens, K.N.; Louwye, S. (2011). "The geographical distribution and (palaeo)ecology of Selenopemphix undulata sp. nov., a new late Quaternary dinoflagellate cyst from the Pacific Ocean". Marine Micropaleontology. 78 (3–4): 65–83. Bibcode:2011MarMP..78...65V. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2010.10.001.
^Pospelova, V.; Head, M.J. (2002). "Islandinium brevispinosum sp. nov. (Dinoflagellata), a new organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst from modern estuarine sediments of New England (USA)". Journal of Phycology. 38 (3): 593–601. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.01206.x. S2CID83682507.
^Mertens, K.N.; Yamaguchi, A.; Kawami, H.; Ribeiro, S.; Leander, B.S.; Price, A.M.; Pospelova, V.; Ellegaard, M.; Matsuoka, K. (2012). "Archaeperidinium saanichi sp. nov.: a new species based on morphological variation of cyst and theca within the Archaeperidinium minutum Jörgensen 1912 species complex". Marine Micropaleontology. 96–97: 48–62. Bibcode:2012MarMP..96...48M. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2012.08.002.
^Dale, B (1977). "New observations on Peridinium faeroense Paulsen (1905), and classification of small orthoperidinioid dinoflagellates". Br. Phycol. J. 12 (3): 241–253. doi:10.1080/00071617700650261.
^Fensome, R.A., Taylor, F.J.R., Norris, G., Sarjeant, W.A.S., Wharton, D.I., and Williams, G.L., 1993. A classification of modern and fossil dinoflagellates, Sheridan Press, Hanover. .
^DE, VERTEUIL L.; Norris, G. (1996). "Part 2. Homology and structure in dinoflagellate cyst terminology". Micropaleontology. S42: 83–172.
^ abJux, U (1968). "Über den feinbau der wandung bei Hystrichosphaera bentori Rossignol 1961". Palaeontographica Abteilung B. 123 (1–6): 147–152.
^Head, M.J. (1994). "Morphology and paleoenvironmental significance of the Cenozoic dinoflagellate genera Tectatodinium and Habibacysta". Micropaleontology. 40 (4): 289–321. Bibcode:1994MiPal..40..289H. doi:10.2307/1485937. JSTOR1485937.
^Reid, P.C.; Boalch, G.T. (1987). "A new method for the identification of dinoflagellate cysts". Journal of Plankton Research. 9: 249–253. doi:10.1093/plankt/9.1.249.
^ abDale, B. & Dale, A.L. 2002. Environmental applications of dinoflagellate cysts and acritarchs . In Quaternary environmental micropalaeontology (Haslett, S.K., editor), 207-240. Arnold, London.
^Jux, U (1971). "Über den feinbau der wandungen einiger Tertiärer Dinophyceen-zysten und Acritarcha Hystrichosphaeridium, Impletosphaeridium, Lingulodinium". Palaeontographica, Abt. B. 132 (5–6): 165–174.
^Jux, U (1976). "Über den feinbau der wandungen bei Operculodinium centrocarpum (Deflandre & Cookson) Wall 1967 und Bitectatodinium tepikiense Wilson 1973". Palaeontographica, Abt. B. 155 (5–6): 149–156.
^Kokinos, J. P.; Eglinton, T.I.; Goñi, M.A.; Boon, J.J.; Martoglio, P.A.; Anderson, D.M. (1998). "Characterisation of a highly resistant biomacromolecular material in the cellwall of a marine dinoflagellate resting cyst". Organic Geochemistry. 28 (5): 265–288. Bibcode:1998OrGeo..28..265K. doi:10.1016/s0146-6380(97)00134-4.
^Stosch, H.A. VON (1965). "Sexualität bei Ceratium cornutum (Dinophyta)". Die Naturwissenschaften. 52 (5): 112–113. doi:10.1007/bf00626331. S2CID9630941.
^Pfiester, L. A. & Anderson, D. M. 1987. Dinoflagellate reproduction. In: The biology of dinoflagellates (ed. F. J. R. Taylor), pp. 611–648. - Blackwell, Oxford.
^RENGEFORS K. 1998. Seasonal succession of dinoflagellates coupled to the benthic cyst dynamics in Lake Erken, Sweden. Archiv für Hydrobiologie, Special Issues, Advances in Limnology 51: 123–141.
^Alpermann, T.J.; Beszteri, B.; John, U.; Tillmann, U.; Cembella, A.D. (2009). "Implications of life history transitions on the population genetic structure of the toxigenic marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense". Molecular Ecology. 18 (10): 2122–2133. Bibcode:2009MolEc..18.2122A. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2009.04165.x. PMID19389181. S2CID28650477.
^ abcWall, D.; Dale, B.; Lohman, G.P.; Smith, W.K. (1977). "The environmental and climatic distribution of dinoflagellate cysts in modern sediments from regions in the North and South Atlantic oceans and adjacent seas". Marine Micropaleontology. 2: 121–200. Bibcode:1977MarMP...2..121W. doi:10.1016/0377-8398(77)90008-1.
^Sprangers, M.; Dammers, N.; Brinkhuis, H.; van Weering, T.C.E.; Lotter, A.F. (2004). "Modern organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst distribution offshore NW Iberia; tracing the upwelling system". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 128 (1–2): 97–106. Bibcode:2004RPaPa.128...97S. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(03)00114-3. hdl:1874/19661. S2CID128824886.
^Nehring, S (1994). "Spatial distribution of dinoflagellate resting cysts in Recent sediments of Kiel Bight, Germany (Baltic Sea)". Ophelia. 39 (2): 137–158. doi:10.1080/00785326.1994.10429540.
^Marret, F.; Scource, J. (2002). "Control of modern dinoflagellate cyst distribution in the Irish and Celtic seas by seasonal stratification dynamics". Marine Micropaleontology. 47 (1–2): 101–116. Bibcode:2003MarMP..47..101M. doi:10.1016/s0377-8398(02)00095-6.
^Matthießen, J. (1995) Distribution patterns of dinoflagellate cysts and other organic-walled microfossils in recent Norwegian-Greenland Sea sediments , Marine Micropaleontology
^Marret, F.; Eiriksson, J.; Knudsen, K-L.; Scourse, J. (2004). "Distribution of dinoflagellate cyst assemblages in surface sediments from the northern and western shelf of Iceland". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 128 (1–2): 35–54. Bibcode:2004RPaPa.128...35M. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(03)00111-8.
^Verleye, T.J.; Louwye, S. (2010). "Recent geographical distribution of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in the southeast Pacific (25-53ºS) and their relation to the prevailing hydrographical conditions". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 298 (3–4): 319–340. Bibcode:2010PPP...298..319V. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.10.006.
^Richerol, T; Rochon, A; Blasco, S; Scott, DB; Schell; Bennett, R (2008). "Distribution of dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments of the Mackenzie Shelf and Amundsen Gulf, Beaufort Sea (Canada)". Journal of Marine Systems. 74 (3): 825–839. Bibcode:2008JMS....74..825R. doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2007.11.003.
^Matthiessen, J., De Vernal, A., Head, M., Okolodkov, Y., Ángel, P., Zonneveld, K. and Harland, R. Modern organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in Arctic marine environments and their (paleo-) environmental significance. Paläontologische Zeitschrift 79(1): 3-51.
^Vink, A.; Zonneveld, K.A.F.; Willems, H. (2000). "Organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in western equatorial Atlantic surface sediments: distribution and their relation to environment". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 112 (4): 247–286. Bibcode:2000RPaPa.112..247V. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(00)00046-4. PMID11134709.
^Vink, A., Baumann, K-H., Böckel, B., Esper, O., Kinkel, H., Volbers, A., Willems, H., Zonneveld, K.A.F. Coccolithophorid and dinoflagellate synecology in the South and Equatorial Atlantic: Improving the paleoecological significance of phytoplankton microfossils. In: Wefer, G., Mulitza, S. and Ratmeyer, V. (eds.) The South Atlantic in the Late Quaternary: reconstruction of material budgets and current systems. Springer, Berlin: 121-142.
^Bouimetarhan, I.; Marret, F.; Dupont, L.; Zonneveld, K.A.F. (2009). "Dinoflagellate cyst distribution in marine surface sediments off West Africa (17 – 6°N) in relation to sea-surface conditions, freshwater input and seasonal coastal upwelling". Marine Micropaleontology. 71 (3–4): 113–130. Bibcode:2009MarMP..71..113B. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2009.02.001.
^Oliver Esper, Karin Zonneveld. The potential of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts to reconstruct past sea-surface conditions in the Southern Ocean" Marine Micropaleontology 63 (3/4): 185-212.
^Holzwarth, Ulrike; Esper, Oliver; Zonneveld, Karin A.F. (2007). "Distribution of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in shelf surface sediments of the Benguela upwelling system in relationship to environmental conditions". Marine Micropaleontology. 64 (1–2): 91–119. Bibcode:2007MarMP..64...91H. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2007.04.001.
^Elshanawany, R., Zonneveld, K.A.F., Ibrahim, M.I. and Kholeif, S.E.A. (2010). Distribution patterns of recent organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in relation to environmental parameters in the Mediterranean Sea. Palynology
^Radi, T.; Pospelova, V.; de Vernal, A.; Barrie, J.V. (2007). "Dinoflagellate cysts as indicators of water quality and productivity in British Columbia estuarine environments". Marine Micropaleontology. 62 (4): 296–297. Bibcode:2007MarMP..62..269R. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2006.09.002.
^Pospelova, V; de Vernal, A; Pedersen, TF (2008). "Distribution of dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments from the northeastern Pacific Ocean (43-25°N) in relation to sea-surface temperature, salinity, productivity and coastal upwelling". Marine Micropaleontology. 68 (1–2): 21–48. Bibcode:2008MarMP..68...21P. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2008.01.008.
^Cremer, H.; Sangiorgi, F.; Wagner, F.; McGee, V.; Lotter, A.F.; Visscher, H. (2007). "Marine Littoral Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) and Dinoflagellates cysts (Dinophyceae) from Rookery Bay, Florida, U.S.A.". Caribbean Journal of Science. 43 (1): 23–58. doi:10.18475/cjos.v43i1.a4. S2CID82533706.
^Limoges, A.; Kielt, J.-F.; Radi, T.; Ruíz-Fernandez, A.C.; de Vernal, A. (2010). "Dinoflagellate cyst distribution in surface sediments along the south-western Mexican coast (14.76° N to 24.75°N)". Marine Micropaleontology. 76 (3–4): 104–123. Bibcode:2010MarMP..76..104L. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2010.06.003.
^Solignac, S.; Grøsfjeld, K.; Giraudeau, J.; de Vernal, A. (2009). "Distribution of recent dinocyst assemblages in the western Barents Sea". Norwegian Journal of Geology. 89 (1–2): 109–119.
^Dale, B., 1996. Dinoflagellate cyst ecology: modelling and geological applications. In Jansonius, J. & McGregor, D.C. (eds.): Palynology: Principles and Applications, volume 3, 1249-1275, AASP Foundation, Dallas.
^Head, M.J., Harland, R., and Matthiessen, J. 2001. Cold marine indicators of the late Quaternary: the new dinoflagellate cyst genus Islandinium and related morphotypes. Journal of Quaternary Science, 16(7): 621–636, 3 pls.
^Mertens, K.N.; Takano, Y.; Head, M.J.; Matsuoka, K. (2014). "Living fossils in the Indo-Pacific warm pool: A refuge for thermophilic dinoflagellates during glaciations". Geology. 42 (6): 531–534. Bibcode:2014Geo....42..531M. doi:10.1130/G35456.1.
^Krepakevich, A.; Pospelova, V. (2010). "Anthropogenic impact on coastal bays of Southern Vancouver Island (BC, Canada) as reflected in phytoplankton sedimentary records". Continental Shelf Research. 30 (18): 1924–1940. Bibcode:2010CSR....30.1924K. doi:10.1016/j.csr.2010.09.002.
^Susek, E.; Zonneveld, K.A.F.; Fischer, G.; Versteegh, G.J.M.; Willems, H. (2005). "Organic walled dinoflagellate cyst production in relation to upwelling intensity and lithogenic influx in the Cape Blanc region (off north-west Africa)". Phycological Research. 53 (2): 97–112. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.2005.tb00362.x.
^Price, AM; Pospelova, V (2011). "High-resolution sediment trap study of organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst production and biogenic silica flux in Saanich Inlet (BC, Canada)". Marine Micropaleontology. 80 (1–2): 18–43. Bibcode:2011MarMP..80...18P. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2011.03.003.
^Pospelova, V.; Esenkulova; Johannessen, S.C.; O'Brien, M.C.; Macdonald, R.W. (2010). "Organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst production, composition and flux from 1996 to 1998 in the central Strait of Georgia (BC, Canada): a sediment trap study". Marine Micropaleontology. 75 (1–4): 17–37. Bibcode:2010MarMP..75...17P. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2010.02.003.
^Zonneveld, K. A. F. Susek E.; Fischer, G. (2010). "Interannual and seasonal variability of the organic-walled dinoflagellate cyst production in the coastal upwelling region off Cape Blanc (Mauritania)". Journal of Phycology. 46 (1): 202–215. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2009.00799.x. S2CID83493908.
^Bringué, Manuel; Pospelova, Vera; Pak, Dorothy (2013). "Seasonal production of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in an upwelling system: A sediment trap study from the Santa Barbara Basin, California". Marine Micropaleontology. 100: 34–51. Bibcode:2013MarMP.100...34B. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2013.03.007.
^Pospelova, V.; Pedersen, T F.; DE Vernal, A. (2006). "Dinoflagellate cysts as indicators of climatic and oceanographic changes during the past 40 kyr in the Santa Barbara Basin, southern California". Paleoceanography. 21 (2): 2010. Bibcode:2006PalOc..21.2010P. doi:10.1029/2005PA001251.
^Verleye, T.J.; Louwye, S. (2010). "Late Quaternary environmental changes and latitudinal shifts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current as recorded by dinoflagellate cysts from offshore Chile (41ºS)". Quaternary Science Reviews. 29 (7): 1025–1039. Bibcode:2010QSRv...29.1025V. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.01.009.
^Londeix, L.; Herreyre, Y.; Turon, J.L.; Fletcher, W. (2009). "Last Glacial to Holocene hydrology of the Marmara Sea inferred from a dinoflagellate cyst record". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 158 (1–2): 52–71. Bibcode:2009RPaPa.158...52L. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.07.004.
^Chen, L.; Zonneveld, K.A.F.; Versteegh, G.J.M. (2011). "Short term climate variability during the "Roman Classical Period" in the Eastern Mediterranean". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (27): 3880–3891. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.3880C. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.09.024.
^Kunz-Pirrung, M.; Matthießen, J.; Vernal, A. (2001). "Late Holocene dinoflagellate cysts as indicators for short-term climate variability in the eastern Laptev Sea (Arctic Ocean)". Journal of Quaternary Science. 16 (7): 711–716. Bibcode:2001JQS....16..711K. doi:10.1002/jqs.649. S2CID129877701.
^Sorrel, P.; Popescu, S.-M.; Head, M.J.; Suc, J.P.; Klotz, S.; Oberhänsli, H. (2006). "Hydrographic development of the Aral Sea during the last 2000 years based on a quantitative analysis of dinoflagellate cysts". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 234 (2–4): 304–327. Bibcode:2006PPP...234..304S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.10.012.
^Ellegaard, M (2000). "Variations in dinoflagellate cyst morphology under conditions of changing salinity during the last 2000 years in the Limfjord, Denmark". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 109 (1): 65–81. Bibcode:2000RPaPa.109...65E. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(99)00045-7. PMID10708791.
^Mudie, P.J.; Aksu, A.E.; Yaşar, D. (2001). "Late Quaternary dinoflagellate cysts from the Black, Marmara and Aegean seas: variations in assemblages, morphology and paleosalinity". Marine Micropaleontology. 43 (1–2): 155–178. Bibcode:2001MarMP..43..155M. doi:10.1016/s0377-8398(01)00006-8.
^DE, VERNAL; Eynaud, F.; Henry, M.; Hillaire-MARCEL, C.; Londeix, L.; Mangin, S.; Matthiessen, J.; Marret, F.; Radi, T.; Rochon, A.; Solignac, S.; Turon, J.-L. (2005). "Reconstruction of sea-surface conditions at middle to high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) based on dinoflagellate cyst assemblages". Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (7–9): 897–924. Bibcode:2005QSRv...24..897D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.014.
^Bonnet, S.; de Vernal, A.; Hillaire-Marcel, C.; Radi, T.; Husum, K. (2010). "Variability of seasurface temperature and sea-ice cover in the Fram Strait over the last two millennia". Mar. Micropaleontol. 74 (3–4): 59–74. Bibcode:2010MarMP..74...59B. doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2009.12.001.
^de Vernal, A., Rochon, A., 2011. Dinocysts as tracers of sea-surface conditions and sea-ice cover in polar and subpolar environments, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 14, 012007.
^Beaudoin, Alwynne Bowyer; Head, M. J.; Head, Martin J. (2004). The Palynology and Micropalaeontology of Boundaries. p. 261. ISBN9781862391604.
^De Vernal, A.; Henry, M.; Matthiessen, J.; Mudie, P.J.; Rochon, A.; Boessenkool, K.P.; Eynaud, F.; Grøsfjeld, K.; Guiot, J.; Hamel, D.; Harland, R.; Head, M.J.; Kunz-Pirrung, M.; Levac, E.; Loucheur, V.; Peyron, O.; Pospelova, V.; Radi, T.; Turon, J.-L.; Voronina, E. (2001). "Dinoflagellate cyst assemblages as tracers of sea-surface conditions in the northern North Atlantic, Arctic and sub-Arctic seas: the new 'n = 677' data base and its application for quantitative palaeoceanographic reconstruction". Journal of Quaternary Science. 16 (7): 681–698. Bibcode:2001JQS....16..681D. doi:10.1002/jqs.659. S2CID140191345.
^DE, VERNAL A.; Eynaud, F.; Henry, M.; Hillaire-MARCEL, C.; Londeix, L.; Mangin, S.; Matthiessen, J.; Marret, F.; Radi, T.; Rochon, A.; Solignac, S.; Turon, J.-L. (2005). "Reconstruction of sea-surface conditions at middle to high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) based on dinoflagellate cyst assemblages". Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (7–9): 897–924. Bibcode:2005QSRv...24..897D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.014.
^Guiot, J., de Vernal, A., 2007. Transfer functions: methods for quantitative paleoceanography based on microfossils, In Hillaire-Marcel and de Vernal (eds.) Proxies in Late Cenozoic Paleoceanography, Elsevier, pp. 523–563.
^Waelbroeck, C.; Paul, A.; Kucera, M.; Rosell-Melé, A.; Weinelt, M.; Schneider, R.; Mix, A.; Abelmann-Gersonde, A.; Armand, L.; Barker, S.; Barrows, T.; Benway, H.; Cacho, I.; Chen, M.; Cortijo, E.; Crosta, X.; de Vernal, A.; Dokken, T.; Duprat, J.; Elderfield, H.; Eynaud, F.; Gersonde, R.; Hayes, A.; Henry, M.; Hillaire-Marcel, C.; Huang, C.; Jansen, E.; Juggins, S.; Kallel, N.; Kiefer, T.; Kienast, M.; Labeyrie, L.; Leclaire, H.; Londeix, L.; Mangin, S.; Matthießen, J.; Marret, F.; Meland, M.; Morey, A.; Mulitza, S.; Pflaumann, U.; Pisias, N.; Radi, T.; Rochon, A.; Rohling, E.; Sbaffi, L.; Schäfer-Neth, C.; Solignac, S.; Spero, H.; Tachikawa, K.; Turon, J. (2009). "Constraints on the magnitude and patterns of ocean cooling at the Last Glacial Maximum"(PDF). Nature Geoscience. 2 (2): 127–132. Bibcode:2009NatGe...2..127M. doi:10.1038/NGEO411. hdl:1885/52333.
^Eynaud, F.; Turon, J.; Matthießen, J.; Peypouquet, F.; Vernal, A.; Henry, M. (2002). "Norwegian sea-surface palaeoenvironments of marine oxygen-isotope stage 3: the paradoxical response of dinoflagellate cysts". Journal of Quaternary Science. 17 (4): 349–359. Bibcode:2002JQS....17..349E. doi:10.1002/jqs.676. S2CID54951606.
^Telford, R.J., 2006. Limitations of dinoflagellate cyst transfer functions. Quaternary Science Reviews 25 : 1375-1382.
^Guiot, J.; DE Vernal, A. (2011). "Is spatial autocorrelation introducing biases in the apparent accuracy of paleoclimatic reconstructions". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (15): 1965–1972. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.1965G. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.04.022.
^Zonneveld, K.A.F.; Chen, L.; El-Shanawany, R.; Fischer, H.W.; Hoins, M.; Pittaurova, D. (2012). "The use of dinoflagellate cysts to separate human and natural variability in the trophic state of the Po River discharge plume during the last two centuries". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 64 (1): 114–132. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.10.012. PMID22118910.
^Van Nieuwenhove, N., Bauch, H.A., Matthiessen, J., 2008. Last Interglacial surface water conditions in the eastern Nordic Seas inferred from dinocyst
^Matthießen, J.; Knies, J. (2001). "Dinoflagellate cyst evidence for warm interglacial conditions at the northern Barents Sea margin, during marine isotope stage 5". Journal of Quaternary Science. 16 (7): 727–737. Bibcode:2001JQS....16..727M. doi:10.1002/jqs.656. S2CID128434842.
^Louwye, S., Foubert, A., Mertens, K.N., Van Rooij, D. & IODP Expedition 307 scientific party (2007). Integrated stratigraphy and palaeoecology of the Lower and Middle Miocene of the Porcupine Basin. Geological Magazine 145, 321-344.
^Popescu, S.-M.; Dalesme, F.; Jouannic, G.; Escarguel, G.; Head, M.J.; Melinte-Dobrinescu, M.C.; Sütö-Szentai, M.; Bakrac, K.; Clauzon, G.; Suc, J.-P. "Galeacysta etrusca Corradini & Biffi 1988, dinoflagellate cyst marker of Paratethyan influxes into the Mediterranean Sea before and after the peak of the Messinian Salinity Crisis". Palynology.
^Head, M.J. and Westphal, H. 1999. Palynology and paleoenvironments of a Pliocene carbonate platform: the Clino Core, Bahamas" Journal of Paleontology 73(1): 1–25, 8 pls.
^De Schepper, S.; Head, M.J.; Louwye, S. (2009). "Pliocene dinoflagellate cyst stratigraphy, palaeoecology and sequence stratigraphy of the Tunnel-Canal Dock, Belgium". Geological Magazine. 146 (1): 92–112. Bibcode:2009GeoM..146...92D. doi:10.1017/s0016756808005438. S2CID128540933.
^De Schepper S, Head MJ, Groeneveld J (2009) North Atlantic Current variability through marine isotope stage M2 (circa 3.3 Ma) during the mid-Pliocene. Paleoceanography 24:PA4206
^Edwards, L.E.; Mudie, P.J.; de Vernal, A. (1991). "Pliocene paleoclimatic reconstruction using dinoflagellate cysts: comparison of methods". Quat. Sci. Rev. 10 (2): 259–274. Bibcode:1991QSRv...10..259E. doi:10.1016/0277-3791(91)90024-o.
^De Schepper, S.; Fischer, E.; Groeneveld, J.; Head, M.; Matthießen, J. (2011). "Deciphering the palaeoecology of Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene dinoflagellate cysts". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 309 (1–2): 17–32. Bibcode:2011PPP...309...17D. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.04.020.
^Mccarthy, F.M.G.; Mertens, K.N.; Ellegaard, M.; Sherman, K.; Pospelova, V.; Ribeiro, S.; Blasco, S.; Vercauteren, D. (2011). "Resting cysts of freshwater dinoflagellates in southeastern Georgian Bay (Lake Huron) as proxies of cultural eutrophication". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 166 (1–2): 46–62. Bibcode:2011RPaPa.166...46M. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2011.04.008.
^CHU, G.; SUN, Q.; Rioual, P.; Boltovskoy, A.; LIU, Q.; SUN, P.; HAN, J.; LIU, J. (2008). "Distinct microlaminations and freshwater "red tides" recorded in Lake Xiaolongwan, northeastern, China". Journal of Paleolimnology. 39 (3): 319–333. Bibcode:2008JPall..39..319C. doi:10.1007/s10933-007-9106-1. S2CID128843669.
^Tardio, M.; Sangiorgi, F.; Brinkhuis, H.; Filippi, M.L.; Cantonati, M.; Lotter, A.F. (2006). "Peridinioid dinoflagellate cysts in a Holocene high-mountain lake deposits in Italy". Journal of Paleolimnology. 36 (3): 315–318. Bibcode:2006JPall..36..315T. doi:10.1007/s10933-006-9001-1. S2CID128763506.
^Hemsley, A.R.; Lewis, J.; Griffiths, P.C. (2004). "Soft and sticky development : some underlying reasons for microarchitectural pattern convergence". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 130 (1–4): 105–119. Bibcode:2004RPaPa.130..105H. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2003.12.004.
^Hallett, R.I., 1999. Consequences of environmental change on the growth and morphology of Lingulodinium polyedrum (Dinophyceae) in culture. PhD thesis. University of Westminster, 109 pp.
^ abMertens, K.N.; Dale, B.; Ellegaard, M.; Jansson, I.-M.; Godhe, A.; Kremp, A.; Louwye, S. (2010). "Process length variation in cysts of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum from surface sediments of the Baltic-Kattegat-Skaggerak estuarine system: a regional salinity proxy". Boreas. 40 (2): 242–255. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2010.00193.x. S2CID83160220.
^Mertens, K.N.; Bringué, M.; Van Nieuwenhove, N.; Takano, Y.; Pospelova, V.; Rochon, A.; de Vernal, A.; Radi, T.; Dale, B.; Patterson, R.T.; Weckström, K.; Andrén, E.; Louwye, S.; Matsuoka, K. (2012). "Process length variation of the cyst of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum in the North Pacific and Baltic-Skagerrak region: calibration as annual density proxy and first evidence of pseudo-cryptic speciation". Journal of Quaternary Science. 27 (7): 734–744. Bibcode:2012JQS....27..734M. doi:10.1002/jqs.2564. S2CID128999348.
^Ellegaard, M; Lewis, J; Harding, I (2002). "Cyst-theca relationship, life cycle, and effects of temperature and salinity on the cyst morphology of Gonyaulax baltica sp. nov. (Dinophyceae) from the Baltic Sea area". Journal of Phycology. 38 (4): 775–789. Bibcode:2002JPcgy..38..775E. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2002.01062.x. S2CID84740337.
^Rochon, A; Lewis, J; Ellegaard; Harding, IC (2009). "The Gonyaulax spinifera (Dinophyceae) "complex" : perpetuating the paradox ?". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 155 (1–2): 52–60. Bibcode:2009RPaPa.155...52R. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2008.12.017.
^Zonneveld, Karin A.F.; Susek, Ewa (2007). "Effect of temperature, light and salinity on cyst production and morphology of Tuberculodinium vancampoae (Rossignol 1962) Wall 1967 (Pyrophacus steinii (Schiller 1935) Wall et Dale 1971)". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 145 (1–2): 77–88. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2006.09.001.
^Mertens, K.N., Bradley, L.R., Takano, Y., Mudie, P.J., Marret, F., Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Verleye, T.J., Mousing, E.A., Smyrnova, L.L., Bagheri, S., Mansor, M., Pospelova, V. & Matsuoka, K. (in press). Quantitative estimation of Holocene surface salinity variation in the Black Sea using dinoflagellate cyst process length. Quaternary Science Reviews
^MacRae, R.A.; Fensome, R.A.; Williams, G.L. (1996). "Fossil dinoflagellate diversity, originations, and extinctions and their significance". Can. J. Bot. 74 (11): 1687–1694. doi:10.1139/b96-205.
^Moldowan, J.M. and Talyzina, N.M., Biogeochemical evidence for dinoflagellate ancestors in the Early Cambrian. Science 281, 1168-1170.
^LeHerissé, A., Masure, E., Al Ruwaili, M., Massa, D., 2000. Revision of Arpylorus antiquus from the Silurian: the end of a myth. In: Wang, W., Quyang, S., Sun, X., Yu, G. (Eds.), Abstracts 10th International Palynological Congress, Nanjing. National Natural Science Foundation of China, p. 88.
^Vozzhennikova, T.F., Shegeshova, L.I., 1989. Palaeodinophysis gen. et sp. N. from the Devonian of the Rudnyy Altay (a unique find of dinoflagellate fossils), Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 307, 442–445 (in Russian).
^Powell, A. J. (ed.), 1992: A Stratigraphic Index of Dinoflagellate Cysts. London: Chapman & Hall, 300 pp.
^Williams, G.L., Stover, L.E., & Kidson, E.J., 1993: Morphology and stratigraphic ranges of selected Mesozoic-Cenozoic dinoflagellate taxa in the northern hemisphere. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper. 92-10 , 137 pp., 2 pl.
^De Schepper, S.; Head, M.J. (2008). "Age calibration of dinoflagellate cyst and acritarch events in the Pliocene–Pleistocene of the eastern North Atlantic (DSDP Hole 610A)". Stratigraphy. 5 (2): 137–161. doi:10.29041/strat.05.2.02. S2CID55267190.
^Louwye, S.; Head, M.J.; De Schepper, S. (2004). "Dinoflagellate cyst stratigraphy and palaeoecology of the Pliocene in northern Belgium, southern North Sea Basin". Geological Magazine. 141 (3): 353–378. Bibcode:2004GeoM..141..353L. doi:10.1017/s0016756804009136. S2CID131306285.
^Head, M.J.; Lewis, J.; de Vernal, A. (2006). "The cyst of the calcareous dinoflagellate Scrippsiella trifida: resolving the fossil record of its organic wall with that of Alexandrium tamarense". Journal of Paleontology. 80 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0001:tcotcd]2.0.co;2. S2CID86038878.
^Stockmarr, J (1971). "Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis". Pollen et Spores. 13: 615–621.
^Mertens, K.N.; Verhoeven, K.; Verleye, T.; Louwye, S.; Amorim, A.; Ribeiro, S.; Deaf, A.S.; Harding, I.C.; DE Schepper, S.; GonzÁLEZ, C.; Kodrans-NSIAH, M.; DE Vernal, A.; Henry, M.; Radi, T.; Dybkjaer, K.; Poulsen, N.E.; Feist-BURKHARDT, S.; Chitolie, J.; Heilmann-CLAUSEN, C.; Londeix, L.; Turon, J.-L.; Marret, F.; Matthiessen, J.; Mccarthy, F.M.G.; Prasad, V.; Pospelova, V.; Hughes, J.E.K.; Riding, J.B.; Rochon, A.; Sangiorgi, F.; Welters, N.; Sinclair, N.; Thun, C.; Soliman, A.; VAN Nieuwenhove, N.; Vink, A.; Young, M. (2009). "The absolute abundance calibration project: the Lycopodium marker-grain method put to the test"(PDF). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 157 (3–4): 238–252. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2009.05.004.
^Mertens, K.N.; et al. (2012). "Determining the absolute abundance of dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments II: Further tests of the Lycopodium…". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 184: 74–81. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2012.06.012.
^Wall, D (1971). "Biological problems concerning fossilizable dinoflagellates". Geoscience and Man. 3: 1–15. doi:10.1080/00721395.1971.9989704.
International sporting eventCycling at the 1951 Pan American GamesStart date25 February 1951End date3 March 1951No. of events81955» This page shows the results of the cycling competition at the 1951 Pan American Games, held from 25 February to 3 March 1951 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. There were a total number of eight medal events, with only men competing. Medal summary Medal table * Host nation (Argentina)RankNOC'sGoldSilverBronzeTotal1 Argentina*744152 C…
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Graziani. Rodolfo GrazianiFonctionsMinistre de la Défense République Sociale italienne 23 septembre 1943 - 25 avril 1945. Gouverneur Général de la Libye italienne Royaume d'Italie 1er juillet 1940 - 25 mars 1941.BiographieNaissance 11 août 1882Filettino (royaume d'Italie)Décès 11 janvier 1955 (à 72 ans)RomeSépulture AffileNom de naissance Rodolfo GrazianiNationalité italienneAllégeances Royaume d'Italie, République sociale italienneFormation Aca…
La NFL Scouting Combine è un evento sportivo di football americano della durata di una settimana che si tiene ogni anno tra la fine di febbraio e l'inizio di marzo. Durante i giorni dell'evento i capi esecutivi, gli allenatori, i medici e gli scout delle 32 squadre della National Football League (NFL) osservano oltre 300 tra i migliori giocatori provenienti dai vari college del paese che si sottopongono a test attitudinali, medici e prove individuali[1] con l'obiettivo di dimostrare le …
SMA Negeri 12 PadangInformasiAkreditasiA[1]Nomor Statistik Sekolah301086106053Nomor Pokok Sekolah Nasional10303480Kepala SekolahDrs. Parendangan Nasution, M.PdJurusan atau peminatanIPA dan IPSRentang kelasX IPA, X IPS, XI IPA, XI IPS, XII IPA, XII IPSKurikulumKurikulum 2013AlamatLokasiJl. Gurun Laweh telp.0751-4977224, Padang, Sumatera BaratMoto SMA Negeri (SMAN) 12 Padang, merupakan salah satu Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri yang ada di Provinsi Sumatera Barat, Indonesia. Sama dengan …
Two Faces of My GirlfriendPosterSutradaraLee Seok-hoonProduserKim Min-gi Heo Chang Andy YoonDitulis olehHwang In-hoPemeranBong Tae-gyu Jung Ryeo-wonPenata musikBang Jun-seokSinematograferLee Doo-manPenyuntingNam Na-yeongPerusahaanproduksiFineWorksDistributorShowbox/MediaplexTanggal rilis 12 September 2007 (2007-09-12) Durasi117 menitNegaraKorea SelatanBahasaKoreaPendapatankotorUS$4,2 juta[1] Two Faces of My Girlfriend (Hangul: 두 얼굴의 여친; RR: Du…
National athletics relay team Belgian men's 4 × 400 metres relay teamOlympic GamesAppearances7Medals0World ChampionshipsAppearances7Medals2 Medal record Athletics Event 1st 2nd 3rd World Championships 0 0 2 World Indoor Championships 2 1 1 World Relays 0 0 3 European Championships 3 1 1 European Indoor Championships 3 1 1 Total 8 3 8 From left Jonathan Sacoor, Dylan Borlée and the twins Kevin and Jonathan Borlée The Belgian men's 4 × 400 metres relay team, nicknamed the Belgian Tornados from…
19th quadrennial U.S. presidential election 1860 United States presidential election ← 1856 November 6, 1860 1864 → 303 members of the Electoral College152 electoral votes needed to winTurnout81.8%[1] 2.4 pp Nominee Abraham Lincoln John C. Breckinridge Party Republican Southern Democratic Home state Illinois Kentucky Running mate Hannibal Hamlin Joseph Lane Electoral vote 180 72 States carried 18 11 Popular vote 1,865,908 848,019 Perc…
Alphabet invented for writing the Osage language OsageScript type Alphabet Time period2006–presentDirectionLeft-to-right LanguagesOsageRelated scriptsParent systems(Proto-writing)Egyptian hieroglyphsProto-Sinaitic alphabetPhoenician alphabetGreek alphabetOld Italic scriptLatin alphabetEnglish alphabetOsageISO 15924ISO 15924Osge (219), OsageUnicodeUnicode aliasOsageUnicode rangeU+104B0–U+104FF The Osage script is a new script promulgated in 2006 and revised 2012–2014 f…
Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento onorificenze non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Ordine della Corona d'ItaliaOrdine della Corona d'ItaliaInsegne dell'ordine Regno d'Italia Casa SavoiaTipologiaOrdine statale Statuscessato Istituzione20 febbraio 1868 Primo capoVittorio Emanuele II di Savoia CessazioneRoma, de iure 3 marzo 1951 de facto 2 giugn…
Tir à l'arc aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1992 Généralités Sport Tir à l'arc Édition 10e Lieu(x) Barcelone Participants ? Épreuves 4 Navigation Séoul 1988 Atlanta 1996 modifier Quatre épreuves de tir à l'arc sont au programme des Jeux olympiques d'été de 1992 à Barcelone. Tableau des médailles Tableau des médailles Rang Pays Or Argent Bronze Total 1 Corée du Sud 2 2 0 4 2 France 1 0 0 1 - Espagne 1 0 0 1 4 Chine 0 1 0 1 - Finlande 0 1 0 1 6 Équipe unifiée de l’…
This is a list of members of the Western Australian Legislative Council from October 1870 to June 1872. The chamber had 18 members, as specified by the Legislative Council Act 1870 (33 Vict, No. 13). Section 1 of this Act specified that a minimum of one-third of the Council would be appointed by the Crown. Three of these were official nominees who were part of the Continuous Ministry—namely the Colonial Secretary, Attorney-General and the Surveyor-General—while the remaining three were non-o…
Location of Cameroon This is a list of butterflies of Cameroon. About 1,593 species are known from Cameroon,[1] 110 of which are endemic.[2] Papilionidae Papilioninae Papilionini Papilio antimachus Drury, 1782 Papilio zalmoxis Hewitson, 1864 Papilio nireus Linnaeus, 1758 Papilio charopus Westwood, 1843 Papilio chrapkowskoides nurettini Koçak, 1983 Papilio sosia sosia Rothschild & Jordan, 1903 Papilio sosia pulchra Berger, 1950 Papilio cynorta Fabricius, 1793 Papilio plagiatu…
Persinyalan kereta api di Norwegia adalah isyarat perkeretaapian yang mengatur jalannya operasi kereta api dalam satu petak jalan berupa lampu, tanda, atau simbol yang berlaku di lintas rel Norwegia. Sistem persinyalan yang digunakan pada angkutan kereta api di Norwegia diatur oleh Peraturan Pemerintah tanggal 4 Desember 2001 no. 1336 berjudul signals and signs on the state's railway network. Sistem persinyalan pertama di Norwegia menggunakan sinyal semafor yang dioperasikan secara mekanis di St…
Italian financial daily newspaper Il Sole 24 OreFront page, 22 October 2022TypeDaily newspaperFormatBroadsheetOwner(s)ConfindustriaFounder(s)Ferdinando di FenizioLibero LentiRoberto TremelloniFounded9 November 1965; 58 years ago (1965-11-09)Political alignmentLiberalism[1]LanguageItalianHeadquartersMilan, ItalyCirculation177,000 (2017)ISSN0391-786XWebsitewww.ilsole24ore.com Il Sole 24 Ore (Italian: [il ˈsoːle ˌventiˈkwattro ˈoːre]; English: The Sun 24 Hour…
Oxyanion with a central atom of sulfur surrounded by 3 oxygen atomsNot to be confused with Sulfur trioxide. A space-filling model of the sulfite anion. Sulfites or sulphites are compounds that contain the sulfite ion (or the sulfate(IV) ion, from its correct systematic name), SO2−3. The sulfite ion is the conjugate base of bisulfite. Although its acid (sulfurous acid) is elusive,[1] its salts are widely used. Sulfites are substances that naturally occur in some foods and the human body…
English lyricist and author (born 1944) SirTim RiceRice in 2020Background informationBirth nameTimothy Miles Bindon RiceBorn (1944-11-10) 10 November 1944 (age 79)Shardeloes, Buckinghamshire, EnglandOriginAmersham, Buckinghamshire, EnglandGenres Musical theatre film television lyricist author Occupation(s)Lyricist • authorYears active1965–presentWebsitetimrice.co.ukMusical artist Sir Timothy Miles Bindon Rice (born 10 November 1944) is an English lyricist and author. He is best known fo…
A Conspiração judaico-maçônico-comunista internacional, às vezes chamada de Conspiração judaico-maçônico-marxista internacional, ou simplesmente de conspiração judaico-maçônica, é uma teoria da conspiração envolvendo uma aliança secreta entre judeus, maçons e comunistas. O objectivo obscuro da aliança seria a dominação do mundo. Precedentes Cartaz alemão de 1935, dizendo: política mundial - revolução mundial. A Maçonaria é uma organização internacional em dívida com…