Bengali Kayastha

Bengali Kayastha

A Kayastha of Calcutta, from a 19th-century book
Regions with significant populations
Bengal
Languages
Bengali
Religion
Hinduism

Bengali Kayastha is a Bengali Hindu caste that originated from the Bengal region of Indian subcontinent, and is one of the main subgroups of the Kayastha community. The historical caste occupation of Kayasthas throughout India has been that of scribes, administrators, ministers and record-keepers;[1] the Kayasthas in Bengal, along with Brahmins and Baidyas, are regarded among the three traditional higher castes[2][3] that comprise the "upper layer of Hindu society".[4] During the British Raj, the Bhadraloks of Bengal were drawn primarily, but not exclusively, from these three castes, who continue to maintain a collective hegemony in West Bengal.[5][6][7]

History

The social and religious patterns of Bengal had historically been distinctively different from those in the orthodox Hindu heartland of North India and this impacted on how the caste system developed there. Bengal, being located east of the traditional Aryavarta (Aryan) region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, remained insulated from the full impact of Brahminical orthodoxy for many centuries. The influence of Buddhism remained strong there, continuing under the Buddhist rulers of the Pala dynasty from the eighth through the eleventh century CE.[8]

During the Gupta period, Kayastha had not crystallised into a caste, and represented a professional group. Kayasthas frequently appear in the Gupta inscriptions mostly as professional writers or scribes.[9] The importance of the lekhaka or writer seems to have increased during the Gupta period; the term 'Kayastha' was a part of the Gupta administrative terminology. A number of inscriptions during this period mention the office of Prathama-Kayastha, meaning chief scribe in the administrative office, and represented "probably the Chief Secretary to the administrative Board".[10][11]

According to Tej Ram Sharma, an Indian historian, the office of Kayastha in Bengal was instituted before the Gupta period (c. 320 to 550 CE), although there is no reference to Kayastha as a caste at that time. He says that

The names of brahmanas occurring in our inscriptions sometimes end in a non-brahmanic cognomen such as Bhatta, Datta and Kunda, etc., which are available in the inscriptions of Bengal. Surnames like Datta, Dama, Palita, Pala, Kunda (Kundu), Dasa, Naga and Nandin are now confined to Kayasthas of Bengal but not to brahmanas. Noticing brahmanic names with a large number of modern Bengali Kayastha cognomens in several early epigraphs discovered in Bengal, some scholars have suggested that there is a considerable brahmana element in the present day Kayastha community of Bengal. Originally the professions of Kayastha (scribe) and Vaidya (physician) were not restricted and could be followed by people of different varnas including the brahmanas. So there is every probability that a number of brahmana families were mixed up with members of other varnas in forming the present Kayastha and Vaidya communities of Bengal.

Sharma also mentions that D. R. Bhandarkar "has pointed out that identical surnames are used by the Nagara-brahmanas".[9] Referring to Naishadha Charita and Usanas-samhita smriti, Rabindra Nath Chakraborty mentions that according to these two medieval texts, "the Kayasthas were descended from Nagara Brahmin who had a large settlement in Bengal in the eighth century AD".[12] Although according to historian H. K. Barpujari this argument of migration is not convincing because, in that scenario, the majority of the recipients of East Indian grants would likely be Nagara Brahmins. However, it is worth noting that they have not historically been held in high esteem in this region.[13] R.C Majumdar noted that the evidence in support of a significant immigration of Nagara Brahmins in Bengal is not much convincing and the occurrence of Nagara Brahmin surnames like Datta, Ghosha, Varman, Nag, and Mitra among  Kayasthas in Bengal also does not hold much significance, as these surnames were commonly used throughout India during that time period.[14]

According to André Wink, another historian, the caste is first referred to around the 5th–6th century CE, and may well have become so identified during the period of the Sena dynasty. Between that time and the 11th–12th century, they were not regarded as a caste by Sanskrit texts such as Rājatarangini but "as a category of 'officials' or 'scribes'". This category of officials or scribes was composed of "putative" Kshatriyas and, "for the larger majority", Brahmins, who retained their caste identity or became Buddhists. As in South India, Bengal had lacked a clearly defined Kshatriya caste. The Pala, Sena, Chandra, and Varman dynasties and their descendants, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the Kayastha caste, "which also ranked as shudras". However, Richard M. Eaton opines that, after absorption of remnants of these dynasties, Kayastha became "the region's surrogate Kshatriya or warrior class".[4][15]

Sekhar Bandyopadhyay also places their emergence as a caste after the Gupta period. In the eleventh century, Bengal was in the grip of Brahminism. The Kayastha evolved into a caste (from a professional group) in the 10th-11th century CE. Ancient scripts and inscriptions record a class of royal officials of writers or accountants, denoted as Karana or Kayastha.[16][17] Lexicographer Vaijayanti (11th century CE) appears to consider Kayastha and Karana as being synonymous and depicts them as scribes.[17] Two early scriptures of Bengal also note a caste group called Karana. Some scholars consider Karana and Kayastha castes as identical or equivalent.[18][19][20] Majumder claims that the Karana and Kayastha castes eventually fused to form a single caste in Bengal like other parts of India.[17] Referring to the linkages between class and caste in Bengal, Bandyopadhyay mentions that the Kayasthas along with the Brahmins and Baidyas, refrained from physical labour but controlled land, and as such represented "the three traditional higher castes of Bengal".[3] Eaton mentions that the Kayasthas continued as the "dominant landholding caste" even after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent, and absorbed the descendants of the region's old Hindu rulers. [15]

In Bengal, between 1500 and 1850 CE, the Kayasthas were regarded as one of the highest Hindu castes in the region.[21]

Varna status

The Hindu community in Bengal was divided into only two varnas: Brahmins and Shudras. Hence, although the Bengali Kayasthas and Baidyas had a high social status along with Brahmins, their ritual status was low, according to Edmund Leach, S. N. Mukherjee,[22] though it seems their ritual status is a subject of dispute as per other historians.

Colonial era

Bengali Kayasthas initially collaborated with the British, and their role as scribes allowed the British East India Company to consolidate its power in India. However, by the early 20th century, they had amassed great wealth, pursued English education, and emerged as rivals to the British government. The British reacted by defining them as a uniform caste and demoting them to Shudra category in ethnographic surveys. A report by Herbert Hope Risley and Edward Albert Gait cited their failure to observe scriptural dogma and rejection of the sacred thread as the reason for the loss of their upper-caste status.[23]: 340  Following the report, Bengali Kayastha activists such as Nagendranath Basu reacted by forming caste organisations such as the Kayastha Sabha, consisting of educated professionals like lawyers, teachers, and intellectuals belonging to the caste. Kayastha Patrika, a mouthpiece of the organisation, published articles elaborating why Kayasthas were not Shudras.[23]: 341 

Colonial-era verdicts also declared Bengali Kayasthas as Shudras, relying on observations of their ritual practices. One of the earliest such verdicts in Rajcoomar Lal v. Bissessur Dayal (1884), adjudged the Shudra designation but was influenced by a 'semantic-historicist' argument that Bengali Kayasthas had been degraded from an earlier Kshatriya status.[24][23]: 343  Nabaparna Ghosh states that these verdicts relied on the premise that Bengali Kayasthas were different from those of the United Provinces and Bihar, as they did not initiate themselves to sacred threads nor performed rituals at the time of adoption. Judges in these verdicts cited the lack of these rituals in Bengal as an example of its distinctiveness from other provinces, territorializing the Bengali Kayastha caste identity.[23]: 343–344 

According to Ghosh, the 'territorialization' of caste by Calcutta High court validated the Bengali Kayasthas as a distinct homogenous identity in equal status to the Shudras. This identity was later 'internalised' and accepted by the Bengali Kayasthas who still rejected their colonial categorisation as Shudras, instead describing themselves as upper-castes in "a challenge to the dominance both of the colonial state and of Brahmins".[23]: 338 

While analysing the last completed census of the British Raj (1931), Bellenoit notes that the Bengal census volume was "disturbingly ambiguous" in the case of Bengali Kayasthas and noted that in Bengal, "while it associated Kayasthas with the 'upper classes' of Brahmins and Vaishyas", on the other hand, Kayasthas have invariably been held to be Sudras.[25][26]

A survey of Indian writers and observers suggests that many of those acquainted with the Kayasthas considered them as Dvija or twice-born. Bellenoit gives the examples of Rabindranath Tagore and Abdul Halim Sharar to illustrate this point. According to Bellenoit, "although Tagore had Bengal specifically in mind, he argued that the Dutts, Ghoshs and Guhas were of Kshatriya origin, again citing their 'respectability and prominence in administration and overall rates of literacy'". Abdul Sharar, who was well acquainted with them also supported their claims of twice-born (Kshatriya and Vaishya origin) citing their high literacy rate which a Shudra caste could not have achieved. However, the claims of Bengali Kayasthas of having Dvija status was not supported by Indian observers like Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya who cited their rituals to refute their claims.[27] The Report of the 1931 census of Bengal noted that, the 'better-placed' Kayastha community claimed Kshatriya status.[28]

Modern views

Some scholars note that "Hindu communities labelled 'Kayastha' are found all over northern India, but historically, their social ranking was not uniform. At different times and in different places, those labelled Kayastha were accorded the same status as Brahmins, Kshatriyas or Sudras, and there was even a claim that they formed a fifth varna within the Hindu caste structure".[29] Bengali Kayastha individuals are not uniformly from the northern region of India; however, they form a district genetic cluster.[30]

Professor Julius J. Lipner mentions that the varna status of the Bengali Kayasthas is disputed, and says that while some authorities consider that they "do not belong to the twice-born orders, being placed high up among the Shudras; for other authorities they are on a level with Kshatriyas, and are accorded twice-born status."[31] According to John Henry Hutton, Kayastha is an important caste, which in Bengal "ranks next to Brahman"; the caste is now "commonly regarded as 'twice-born', and itself claims to be Kshatriya, though it was perhaps more often regarded as clean Sudra a hundred years ago".[2] Sanyal mentions that due to the lack of Vaishya and Kshatriya categories in Bengal, all non-Brahmin castes of Bengal, including the "higher castes" are considered as Shudras; the Bengali Kayasthas are considered among the three uchchajatis or higher castes as their social standing has been high.[32] Lloyd Rudolph and Susanne Rudolph mention that Ronald Inden (an anthropologist), after spending part of 1964-65 in Bengal, states in his dissertation on Kayasthas that inter-caste marriages are increasing among the urban educated "twice-born castes", Kayasthas, Brahmins, and Baidyas.[33]

Subcastes

Kulin Kayastha and Maulika Kayastha

According to Inden, "many of the higher castes of India have historically been organised into ranked clans or lineages".[21] The Bengali Kayastha was organised into smaller sub-castes and even smaller ranked grades of clans (kulas[34]) around 1500 CE.[35] The four major subcastes were Daksina-radhi, Vangaja, Uttara-radhi and Varendra. The Daksina-radhi and Vangaja subcastes were further divided into Kulina or Kulin ("high clan rank")[21] and Maulika or Maulik, the lower clan rank. The Maulika had four further "ranked grades". The Uttara-radhi and Varendra used the terms "Siddha", "Sadhya", "Kasta" and "Amulaja" to designate the grades in their subcastes.[34]

Origin myths

Bellenoit states that the Bengali Kayasthas are "largely seen as an offshoot of the main north Indian Kayasthas, they claim lineage from migrations into Bengal from the ancient capital of Kanauj at the request of Hindu Kings (900s) to settle the countryside. These Kayasthas took on the well known names of Ghosh, Mitra and Dutt. Over time they fashioned themselves as a Gaur subdivision of a broader Kayastha group, who claimed north Indian origins".[36]

Kulin Kayasthas, a subcaste of Bengali Kayasthas have an associated myth of origin stating that five Kayasthas accompanied the Brahmins from Kannauj who had been invited to Bengal by the mythological king Adisur. Multiple versions of this legend exist, all considered by historians to be myth or folklore lacking historical authenticity.[37] According to Swarupa Gupta this legend was

... fitted into a quasi-historical, sociological narrative of Bengal and deployed to explain the realities of caste and sub-caste origins and connections during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.[38]

According to this legend, the five original Kayastha clans are Bose/Basu, Ghosh, Mitra, Guha, and Datta,[39] the first four of whom became Kulin Kayasthas;[40][8] the legend talks about the migration of Brahmins with the five Kayasthas, from Kannauj to Bengal, forming a caste considered to be of high status.[30]

A modern genetic study evaluating this myth found that "individuals belonging to some of the Kayastha lineages, whether termed Kulin or Moulik in later times, show genetic relatedness with present-day populations in Uttar Pradesh (Bose, Pal), while others show a significant genomic contribution from South India, or do not yield any informative signal on the basis of available Indian populations for comparisons (Nandi)."[30]

Notable people

• Pratapaditya, the king of Jessore who declared independence from Mughal rule in the early 17th century
• Kirtinarayan Basu, 17th-century Raja of Chandradwip who converted to Islam
• Sri Aurobindo, Indian philosopher, yogi and nationalist[41]
• Nagendranath Basu, historian and editor[42]
• Jagadish Chandra Bose, Indian scientist[43]
• Subhas Chandra Bose, popularly known as Netaji ("Respected Leader")[44]
• Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Indian writer[45]
• Debapratim Purkayastha, Indian educator and best-selling author[46][47]
• Satyendra Prasanna "Prasad" Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha[48]
• Swami Vivekananda (b. Narendranath Datta)[49][50]
• Paramahansa Yogananda, author of Autobiography of a Yogi[51]

References

Citations

1. Arnold P. Kaminsky; Roger D. Long (2011). India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic. ABC-CLIO. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-313-37462-3. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
2. Hutton, John Henry (1961). Caste in India: Its Nature, Function, and Origins. Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. p. 65.
3. Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004). Caste, Culture, and Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial Bengal. Sage Publications. p. 20. ISBN 81-7829-316-1.
4. Wink (1991), p. 269
5. Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004). Caste, Culture, and Hegemony: Social Dominance in Colonial Bengal. Sage Publications. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-761-99849-5.
6. Chakrabarti, Sumit (2017). "Space of Deprivation: The 19th Century Bengali Kerani in the Bhadrolok Milieu of Calcutta". Asian Journal of Social Science. 45 (1/2): 56. doi:10.1163/15685314-04501003. ISSN 1568-4849. JSTOR 44508277.
7. Ghosh, Parimal (2016). What Happened to the Bhadralok?. Delhi: Primus Books. ISBN 978-93-84082-99-4.
8. Hopkins (1989), pp. 35–36
9. Sharma (1978), p. 115
10. K. L. Chanchreek; Maheśa Jaina (2004). Jaina Social Life: Ancient and Medieval India. Shree Publishers & Distributors. p. 125. ISBN 9788188658626.
11. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (1993). The Gupta Polity. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 257. ISBN 9788120810242.
12. Chakraborty, Rabindra Nath (1985). National Integration in Historical Perspective: A Cultural Regeneration in Eastern India. Mittal Publications. p. 124.
13. Barpujari, H. K. (1990). The Comprehensive History of Assam: From the Pre-historic Times to the Twelfth Century A.D. Publication Board, Assam. p. 104.
14. MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ , CALCUTTA. p. 435. the evidence in support of a large-scale immigration of Nagara Brahmaņas is hardly convincing. The Nāgara Brahmaņas in Vanga, mentioned in the Kamasútra of Vätsyāyana, may refer to the Brahmanas of the city (nagara). The fact that the surnames of Nagara Brahmaņas such as datta, ghosha, varman, naga and mitra also occur in the names of the Kayasthas of Bengal does not signify much, as these surnames or name-endings were commonly used all over India about that period. The existence in Paichakhanda (Sylhet) of a linga called Hatakeśvara. which is said to have been the tutelary deity of the Nagara Brahmaņas, hardly justifies the assumption of a large settlement, for even individual settlers might introduce their own peculiar cult. Besides, there is nothing to show that the worship of Hatakeśvara was exclusively confined to the Nagara Brahmaņas.
15. Eaton (1996), p. 102
16. Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
17. MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ , CALCUTTA. p. 433.
18. Sanyal, Hitesranjan (1971). "Continuities of Social Mobility in Traditional and Modern Society in India: Two Case Studies of Caste Mobility in Bengal". The Journal of Asian Studies. 30 (2): 317–319. doi:10.2307/2942917. ISSN 1752-0401. JSTOR 2942917. S2CID 163001574.
19. From the Margins of Hindu Marriage. OXFORD University Press. 1995. pp. 146–148. ISBN 978-0-19-508118-3.
20. Bhaumik, Sudarshana (2022). The Changing World of Caste and Hierarchy in Bengal: Depiction from the Mangalkavyas C. 1700-1931. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 35, 46, 47, 51, 242. ISBN 978-0-367-70418-6.
21. Inden (1976), p. 1
22. Leach, Edmund; Mukherjee, S. N. (1970). Elites in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 55.
23. Ghosh, Nabaparna (3 July 2023). "INHERITING caste: the judicial construction of Bengali Kayastha caste identity in inheritance settlements in colonial Calcutta". South Asian History and Culture. 14 (3): 336–355. doi:10.1080/19472498.2022.2095597. ISSN 1947-2498.
24. Bellenoit, Hayden J. (2017). The Formation of the Colonial State in India: Scribes, Paper and Taxes, 1760–1860. Taylor & Francis. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-134-49429-3.
25. Bellenoit 2023, pp. 59.
26. Kumar, Ashwani (2008). Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar. Anthem Press. p. 195.
27. Hayden J. Bellenoit (2017). The Formation of the Colonial State in India: Scribes, Paper and Taxes 1760-1860. Taylor & Francis. p. 178,176. ISBN 978-1-134-49429-3. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
28. Sircar, Jawhar(2016).THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HINDU IDENTITY IN MEDIEVAL WESTERN BENGAL.Institute Of Development Studies Kolkata. pp.68
29. Pagani, Luca; Bose, Sarmila; Ayub, Qasim; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2017). "Kayasthas of Bengal: Legends, Genealogies, and Genetics". Economic and Political Weekly. 52 (47): 44–53. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 26697893.
30. Pagani, Luca; Bose, Sarmila; Ayub, Qasim; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2017). "Kayasthas of Bengal: Legends, Genealogies, and Genetics". Economic and Political Weekly. 52 (47): 44–53. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 26697893.
31. Lipner, Julius J. (2009). Debi Chaudhurani, or The Wife Who Came Home. Oxford University Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-19-973824-3.
32. Malcolm McLean (1998). Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad. SUNY Press. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-1-4384-1258-0. there being no Kshatriya or Vaishya element in the indigenous population of Bengal. Ritually, the rank of the Baidya and the Kayasthas is the same as those of the Nabasakhs with whom they constitute the upper strata of the Bengali Sudras known as satsudra [sat meaning clean]. They are also referred to as jalacharaniya Sudras because of their right to offer drinking water to the clean Brahmans who can minister to them without defilement. However, in the secular context the Baidyas and Kayasthas, who were mostly landholders and professionals, occupy a much higher rank than the nabhasakshs, who are mostly traders, manufacturers, and agriculturists. It is due to this reason that Brahmans, Baidyas, and Kayasthas are usually combined together and referred to as uchchajati, i.e. higher castes
33. Lloyd I. Rudolph; Susanne Hoeber Rudolph (15 July 1984). The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India. University of Chicago Press. p. 124 ff. ISBN 978-0-226-73137-7. And Ronald Inden confirms, after spending 1964 and part of 1965 in Bengal preparing a dissertation on Kayasthas, that intermarriage is becoming increasingly frequent among the urban sections of the Kayasthas, Brahmans, and Vaidyas, that is, among those Western-ized and educated twice-born castes dominating the modern, better-paying, and more prestigious occupations of metropolitan Calcutta and constituting perhaps half of the city's population
34. Inden (1976), p. 34
35. Inden (1976), p. 1–2
36. Hayden J. Bellenoit (17 February 2017). The Formation of the Colonial State in India: Scribes, Paper and Taxes, 1760-1860. Taylor & Francis. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-134-49429-3. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
37. Sengupta (2001), p. 25
38. Gupta (2009), pp. 103–104
39. "Dutta Chaudhuri Ancestry". 14 February 2021.
40. Inden (1976), pp. 55–56
41. Aall, Ingrid (1971). Robert Paul Beech; Mary Jane Beech (eds.). Bengal: change and continuity, Issues 16–20. East Lansing: Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. p. 32. OCLC 258335. Aurobindo's father, Dr Krishnadhan Ghose, came from a Kayastha family associated with the village of Konnagar in Hooghly District near Calcutta, Dr. Ghose had his medical training in Edinburgh...
42. Chakravarty, Ishita (1 October 2019). "Owners, creditors and traders: Women in late colonial Calcutta". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 56 (4): 427–456. doi:10.1177/0019464619873800. ISSN 0019-4646. S2CID 210540783.
43. Gosling (2007). Science and the Indian Tradition: When Einstein Met Tagore.
44. A. Pelinka, R. Schell (2003). Democracy Indian Style: Subhas Chandra Bose and the Creation of India's Political Culture. Transaction Publishers. p. 32. ISBN 978-07-6580-186-9.
45. "Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd: Unusual Autobiography Of A Shudra Intellectual| Countercurrents". 21 December 2018. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
46. Chakravorty, Reshmi (13 December 2016). "Professor Debapratim Purkayastha: The case study expert". Deccan Chronicle. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
47. "Dr. Debapratim Purkayastha: Best Selling Case Author". Open The Magazine. 8 November 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2020.
48. An Indian In The House: The lives and times of the four trailblazers who first brought India to the British Parliament. Mereo Books. 2019. ISBN 978-1-86151-490-5. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
49. Bachchan, Harivansh Rai (1998). In the Afternoon of Time: An Autobiography. India: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-88158-1.
50. Banhatti, G.S. (1995). Life and Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 1. ISBN 978-81-7156-291-6. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
51. Sananda Lal Ghosh (1980), Mejda, Self-Realization Fellowship, p. 3

Bibliography

• Eaton, Richard Maxwell (1996), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9
• Gupta, Swarupa (2009), Notions of Nationhood in Bengal: Perspectives on Samaj, C. 1867–1905, Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-17614-0
• Hopkins, Thomas J. (1989), "The Social and Religious Background for Transmission of Gaudiya Vaisnavism to the West", in Bromley, David G.; Shinn, Larry D. (eds.), Krishna consciousness in the West, Bucknell University Press, ISBN 978-0-8387-5144-2
• Inden, Ronald B. (1976), Marriage and Rank in Bengali Culture: A History of Caste and Clan in Middle Period Bengal, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-02569-1
• Sengupta, Nitish K. (2001), History of the Bengali-Speaking People, UBS Publishers' Distributors, ISBN 81-7476-355-4
• Sharma, Tej Ram (1978), Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company
• Wink, Andre (1991), Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-09509-0
• Bellenoit, Hayden J. (2023). "Legal Limbo and Caste Consternation: Determining Kayasthas' Varna Rank in Indian Law Courts, 1860–1930" (PDF). Law and History Review. 41 (1): 43–63. doi:10.1017/S0738248023000056. ISSN 0738-2480. Retrieved 12 January 2025.