تختلف تواريخ كل عصر حسب المنطقة. حسب المقياس الزمني الجيولوجي، بدأ عصر هولوسين في نهاية العصر الجليدي الأخير (حوالي 10,000 قبل الميلاد)، ويستمر حتى الآن. أما بداية الميزوليثيك فتعتبر مطابقة لبداية عصر الهولوسين
العصر النحاسي (or "Eneolithic", "Copper Age") – this period was still largely Neolithic in character, where early نحاس metallurgy appeared alongside the use of stone tools.
عصر برونزي – is not part of prehistory for all regions and civilizations who had adopted or developed a writing system.
عصر حديدي – is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age.
تاريخ قديم – Aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of التاريخ المسجل is roughly 5,300 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing from the protoliterate period around the 3rd millennia BCE.
فجر التاريخ – Period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing but other cultures have already noted its existence in their own writings.
ما بعد التاريخ الكلاسيكى – Period of time that immediately followed ancient history. Depending on the continent, the era generally falls between the years CE 200–600 and CE 1200–1500. The major classical civilizations the era follows are مملكة هان (وانتهت في 220 م), و الإمبراطورية الرومانية الغربية (في 476 م), و إمبراطورية جوبتا (في 550s م), و الساسانيون (في 651 م).
التاريخ المعاصر – التاريخ في الذاكرة الحية و يزاح مع الأجيال، والآن اتساع الأحداث التاريخية الذي بدأ من 1945 المرتبطة مباشرة العصر الحالى. يعرف بحركة فلسفة ما بعد الحداثة (فلسفة) الأتحاد السوفيتى و الولايات المتحدة، من 1973– وحتى الآن)
The First Stage: is usually called شيوعية أولية. It has the following characteristics.
Shared property: there is no concept of ownership beyond individual possessions. All is shared by the tribe to ensure its survival.[بحاجة لمصدر]
الصيد وجمع الثمار: tribal societies have yet to develop large scale agriculture and so their survival is a daily struggle.[بحاجة لمصدر]
Proto-democracy: there is usually no concept of "leadership" yet. So tribes are led by the best warrior if there is war, the best diplomat if they have steady contact with other tribes and so forth.
Slave society
The Second Stage: may be called عبودية, considered to be the beginning of "class society" where private property appears.
طبقة اجتماعية: here the idea of class appears. There is always a slave-owning طبقة حاكمة and the slaves themselves.
سيطرة الدولة: the state develops during this stage as a tool for the slave-owners to use and control the slaves.
زراعة: people learn to cultivate plants and animals on a large enough scale to support large populations.
ديمقراطية and سلطوية: these opposites develop at the same stage. Democracy arises first with the development of the republican city-state, followed by the totalitarian empire.
ملكية شخصية: citizens now own more than personal property. Land ownership is especially important during a time of agricultural development.
Feudalism
The Third Stage: may be called إقطاعية؛ it appears after slave society collapses. This was most obvious during the European عصور وسطى when society went from slavery to feudalism.
أرستقراطية: the state is ruled by monarchs who inherit their positions, or at times marry or conquer their ways into leadership.
ثيوقراطية: this is a time of largely religious rule. When there is only one religion in the land and its organizations affect all parts of daily life.
لقب وراثي[لغات أخرى]:طوائف إثنيةs can sometimes form and one's class is determined at birth with no form of advancement. This was the case with الهند.
دولة قومية: nations are formed from the remnants of the fallen empires. Sometimes, they rebuild themselves into empires once more; this was the case with England's transition from a مقاطعة رومانية to an الإمبراطورية البريطانية.
Capitalism
رأسمالية may be considered the Fourth Stage in the sequence. Marx pays special attention to this stage in human development. The bulk of his work is devoted to analysing the mechanisms of capitalism, which in western society classically arose "red in tooth and claw" from feudal society in a revolutionary movement. In capitalism, the profit motive rules and people, freed from serfdom, work for the capitalists for wages. The capitalist class are free to spread their laissez faire practices around the world. In the capitalist-controlled parliament, laws are made to protect wealth.
Capitalism appears after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrow the feudal system, and it is categorized by the following:
اقتصاد السوق: In capitalism, the entire economy is guided by market forces. Supporters of اقتصاد عدم التدخل economics argue that there should be little or no intervention from the government under capitalism. Marxists, however, such as Lenin in his Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, argue that the capitalist government is a powerful instrument for the furtherance of capitalism and the capitalist nation-state, particularly in the conquest of markets abroad.
ملكية خاصة: The وسائل الإنتاج are no longer in the hands of the monarchy and its nobles, but rather they are controlled by the capitalists. The capitalists control the means of production through commercial enterprises (such as مؤسسة تجاريةs) which aim to maximise profit.
ديمقراطية تمثيلية: The capitalists tend to govern through an elected centralised parliament or congress, rather than under an autocracy. Capitalist (bourgeois) democracy, although it may be extended to the whole population, does not necessarily lead to اقتراع عمومي. Historically it has excluded (by force, segregation, legislation or other means) sections of the population such as women, slaves, ex-slaves, people of colour or those on low income. The government acts on behalf of, and is controlled by, the capitalists through various methods.
أجر: In capitalism, workers are rewarded according to their contract with their employer. Power elites propagate the illusion that market forces mean wages converge to an equilibrium at which workers are paid for precisely the value of their services. In reality workers are paid less than the value of their productivity — the difference forming profit for the employer. In this sense all paid employment is exploitation and the worker is "alienated" from their work. Insofar as the profit-motive drives the market, it is impossible for workers to be paid for the full value of their labour, as all employers will act in the same manner.
إمبريالية: Wealthy countries seek to dominate poorer countries in order to gain access to raw materials and to provide captive markets for finished products. This is done directly through war, the threat of war, or the export of capital. The capitalist's control over the state can play an essential part in the development of capitalism, to the extent the state directs warfare and other foreign intervention.
مؤسسة ماليةs:مصرف (أموال)s and capital markets such as سوق الأوراق الماليةs direct unused capital to where it is needed. They reduce barriers to entry in all markets, especially to the poor; it is in this way that banks dramatically improve class mobility.
احتكار: The natural, unrestrained market forces will create monopolies from the most successful commercial entities.
But according to Marx, capitalism, like slave society and feudalism, also has critical failings — inner contradictions which will lead to its downfall. The working class, to which the capitalist class gave birth in order to produce commodities and profits, is the "grave digger" of capitalism. The worker is not paid the full value of what he or she produces. The rest is surplus value — the capitalist's profit, which Marx calls the "unpaid labour of the working class." The capitalists are forced by competition to attempt to drive down the wages of the working class to increase their profits, and this creates conflict between the classes, and gives rise to the development of class consciousness in the working class. The working class, through trade union and other struggles, becomes conscious of itself as an exploited class. In the view of classical Marxism, the struggles of the working class against the attacks of the capitalist class will eventually lead the working class to establish its own collective control over production
Socialism
After the working class gains class consciousness and mounts a revolution against the capitalists, نمط الإنتاج الاشتراكي, which may be considered the Fifth Stage, will be attained, if the workers are successful. ماركسية may be characterised as follows:
مشاعات عامة: the وسائل الإنتاج are taken from the hands of a few capitalists and put in the hands of the workers. This translates into the democratic communes controlling the means of production.
ديمقراطية سوفيتية: Marx, basing himself on a thorough study of الحرب الأهلية في فرنسا, believed that the workers would govern themselves through system of communes. He called this the ديكتاتورية البروليتاريا, which, overthrowing the dictatorship (governance) of capital, would democratically plan production and the resources of the planet.
Marx explained that, since socialism, the first stage of communism, would be "in every respect, economically, morally, and intellectually, still stamped with the birthmarks of the old society from whose womb it emerges", each worker would naturally expect to be awarded according to the amount of labor he contributes, despite the fact that each worker's ability and family circumstances would differ, so that the results would still be unequal at this stage, although fully supported by social provision.
يغطّي مقياس الزمن الجيولوجي مدى وجود الأرض منذ حوالي 4600 مليون سنة خلت حتى وقتنا هذا. وحدات الزمن الجيولوجي (مرتبة تنازلياً) هي: إيونات eons، الدهر الجيولوجي eras، الفترات periods، والحقب epochs، والعصور ages. والوحدات الكرونوستراتيغرافية المرتبطة التي تقيس وقت الصخور هي "eonothems ،erathems، الأنظمة، السلاسل، المراحل.
الجدولان الزمنيان الثاني والثالث هما قسمان فرعيان من الجدول الزمني السابق لهما كما هو مشار له بعلامة النجمة. تقسم الدهور التحديثية أحياناً إلى العصر الرباعيوالعصر الثالث، على الرغم من أن المصطلح الأخير لم يعد مستخدماً رسمياً.
الفترات الزمنية الكونية
13.8 بليون سنة خلت: نظرية الانفجار العظيم(بدء الكون)
^Gewirth، Alan (1998). The Community of Rights (ط. 2). University of Chicago Press. ص. 168. ISBN:9780226288819. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-04-29. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2012-12-29. Marxists sometimes distinguish between 'personal property' and 'private property,' the former consisting in consumer goods directly used by the owner, while the latter is private ownership of the major means of production.
