In the Philippines, Filipino Mestizo (Spanish: mestizo (masculine) / mestiza (feminine); Filipino/Tagalog: Mestiso (masculine) / Mestisa (feminine)), or colloquially Tisoy, is a name used to refer to people of mixed nativeFilipino and any foreign ancestry.[3] The word mestizo itself is of Spanish origin; it was first used in the Americas to describe people of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry.[4] Currently and historically, the Chinese mestizos were and are still ordinarily the most populous subgroup among mestizos; they have historically been very influential in the creation of Filipino nationalism.[5] The Spanish mestizos also historically and currently exist as a smaller population, but remain a significant minority among mestizos which historically enjoyed prestigious status in Philippine society during Spanish colonial times.
Spanish-Filipina Mestiza wearing the traditional María Clara gown of the Philippines and the long hair tradition of the Filipina women during the colonial era
A Spanish expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565 started a period of Spanish colonization of the Philippines which lasted for 333 years. The Roman Catholic Church played an important role in the Spanish colonization of the Philippines beyond the preaching of the Catholic faith. Spanish missionaries contributed to education, healthcare, scientific research and even public works. The Spanish government and religious missionaries studied the native Filipino languages and published the first grammars and dictionaries of Tagalog, the Bisayan languages and others. In the earlier period, Roman Catholic rituals were adapted to native beliefs and values. As a result, a folk Roman Catholicism developed in the Philippines.[6] European settlers from Spain and Mexico immigrated to the islands and their offspring (of either pure Spanish, or mixed Spanish and Native descent) adopted the culture of their parents and grandparents. Most Filipinos of Spanish descent in the Philippines are of Basque ancestry[7] Some families still privately use Spanish in the households. In addition, Chavacano (a creole language based largely on the Spanish) is widely spoken in Zamboanga and neighboring regions, as well as Cavite and Ternate. Spanish era periodicals record that as much as one-third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon possessed varying degrees of Spanish admixture.[8] In addition to Manila, select cities such as Bacolod, Cebu, Iloilo or Zamboanga which had important military fortifications and commercial ports during the Spanish era also had sizable Mestizo communities.[9]
Even before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, the Chinese had traded with the natives of the Philippines. During the colonial period, there was an increase in the number of Chinese immigrants in the Philippines. The Spaniards restricted the activities of the Chinese and confined them to the Parián which was located near Intramuros, which later they could only live outside it if they became Christian, baptized under the Spanish friars. Most of the Chinese residents earned their livelihood as merchant traders.
Initially, many of the Chinese who arrived during the Spanish period were Hokkien initially from "Chiõ Chiu" (Zhangzhou) and some from "Chin Chiu" (Quanzhou), then later Amoy (Xiamen) and many from "Chinchew" (Quanzhou) who were usually merchants and rarely MacaneseCantonese or Taishanese from Macau and "Cantón" (Guangzhou or Guangdong province in general), who usually worked as cooks or laborers ("cargadores"coolie) or artisan craftsmen. By the American period, more "Fukien" still came and entered and continued the retail trade and currently make up most of the Chinese Filipino population with a few Cantonese also coming to build the Kennon Road / Benguet Road to Baguio. The Chinese residents of the islands were encouraged and sometimes incentivized to intermarry with other native or Spanish Filipinos and convert to Roman Catholicism. Both native Filipinos and Chinese who lacked surnames were encouraged to adopt one from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos, an alphabetical list of Spanish family names, introduced by the government in the mid-19th century.
During the United States colonial period, the Chinese Exclusion Act of the United States was also applied to the Philippines once it was under US administration.[10] Despite this, many were still able to find ways to migrate into the Philippines during the era via legal exceptions or loopholes or illegal means. There was a legal exception for "merchant's sons" with a Landing Certificate of Residence and loophole through family adoption through it. Some also came illegally by stowing away in ships and illegally sneaking past port authority or their own boats landing where there was no coast guard coverage before during that era. Some later also used these as a stepping stone to move to mainland United States.
After the Second World War and the victory of the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, many refugees who fled from Mainland China settled in the Philippines. These groups in the 20th century formed the bulk of the current population of Chinese Filipinos.[11] After the Philippines achieved full sovereignty on July 4, 1946, Chinese immigrants became naturalized Filipino citizens, while the children of these new citizens who were born in the country acquired Filipino citizenship from birth.[12]
Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[13]Mestizos de Sangley—Filipinos with at least some Chinese ancestry descended from the Spanish colonial era—comprise 18–27% of the Philippine population.[14] There used to be a record of roughly 1.5 million Filipinos with pure Chinese ancestry, or about 1.6% of the population back then.[15] There are no consistent ethnic-based census in the Philippine census currently.
Takayama Ukon was a Japanese Catholic daimyō who migrated to the Philippines together with 300 Kirishitan refugees in 1614 as one of the many waves of Japanese immigration to the Philippines during the Christian persecution throughout 1600's in Japan under Tokugawa shogunate. Their descendance diluted to the local populations without records of number.
Total population
Japanese nationals 16,894 (Oct. 2019)[16] People of Japanese descent 200,000[17][18][19] (2006)
Except for the many Chinese migration waves, the history of racial mixture in the Philippines occurred on a smaller scale than other Spanish territories in Americas after and during the Spanish colonial period from the 16th to the 19th century. This ethno-religious social stratification schema was similar to the casta system used in Hispanic America, with some major differences.
The system was used for taxation purposes, with indios and negritos who lived within the colony paying a base tax, mestizos de sangley paying double the base tax, sangleys paying quadruple; blancos, however, paid no tax.[21] The tax system was abolished after the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in 1898, and the term "Filipino" was used to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of ancestry, as per the Philippine nationality law.
It is needful to encourage public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the (native) Filipinos shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a (native) Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a (native) Filipino woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a (native) Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, 2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a (native) Filipino chief, 3,000 or 4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and (native) Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a (native) Filipino chief goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion should any exalted (native) Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be practically impossible.'[25]
Persons classified as blancos (whites) and those with Spanish ancestry were subdivided into the peninsulares (persons of pure Spanish descent born in Spain); insulares (persons of pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines i.e. criollos); mestizos de español (persons of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry), and tornatrás (persons of mixed Austronesian, Chinese, and Spanish ancestry).[26][27]
Persons of pure or mostly Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Hispanic America were classified as Americanos. Mestizos and mulattoes born in Hispanic America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such. Mulattos usually came as indentured servants to the Americanos. Philippine-born children of mestizos and mulattoes from Hispanic America were classified based on patrilineal descent.
The indigenous peoples of the Philippines were referred to as Indios (for those of pure Austronesian descent) and negritos. Indio was a general term applied to native Austronesians as a legal classification; it was only applied to Christianised natives who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies. Persons who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and areas with a large Spanish concentration were classified as such: naturales were baptised Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. Unbaptised Austronesians and Aetas who lived in the towns were classified as salvajes (savages) or infieles (infidels). Remontados ("those who went to the mountains") and tulisanes (bandits) were Austronesians and Aetas who refused to live in towns and moved upland. They were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in everyday life as well as determinant of social class.
The Spanish legally classified the Aetas as ''negritos'', based on their appearance. The word term would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianised Aetas who lived in the colony and unbaptised Aetas who lived in tribes outside of the colony were classified negrito. Christianised Aetas who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios. Persons of Aeta descent were also viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes beyond settlements and resisted conversion to Christianity.
The fluid nature of racial integration in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period was recorded by many travelers and public figures at the time, who were favorably impressed by the lack of racial discrimination, as compared to the situation in other European colonies.
Among them was Sir John Bowring, Governor General of British Hong Kong and a well-seasoned traveler who had written several books about the different cultures in Asia. He described the situation as "admirable" during a visit to the Philippines in the 1870s:
The lines separating entire classes and races, appeared to me less marked than in the Oriental colonies. I have seen on the same table, Spaniards, Mestizos (Chinos cristianos) and Indios, priests and military. There is no doubt that having one Religion forms great bonding. And more so to the eyes of one that has been observing the repulsion and differences due to race in many parts of Asia. And from one (like myself) who knows that race is the great divider of society, the admirable contrast and exception to racial discrimination so markedly presented by the people of the Philippines is indeed admirable."[28]
Another foreign witness was English engineer, Frederic H. Sawyer, who had spent most of his life in different parts of Asia and lived in Luzon for fourteen years. His impression was that as far as racial integration and harmony was concerned, the situation in the Philippines was not equaled by any other colonial power:
... Spaniards and natives lived together in great harmony, and do not know where I could find a colony in which Europeans mixes as much socially with the natives. Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount to salute the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into a bottomless pit.[29]
Statistics
Though the Philippines upholds the principle of racial equality and does not actively gather information on specific races, statistics from historical immigration records,[30] census results,[31][32] and ship passenger logs,[33] can be used to ascertain the populations of specific types of Filipino mestizos.
Immigration logs of Mexican Filipinos
Stephanie J. Mawson, by rummaging through records in the archives of Mexico[33] discovered that the Spaniards were not the only immigrant group to the Philippines; Peru and Mexico too sent soldiers to the islands,[33] and in fact outnumbered the Spaniards who immigrated to the Philippines.[33]
Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.[33]
The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,[34] in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,[35] thus forming 2.33% of the population.[36]
Tribute counts of Spanish Filipinos
In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de
las islas Filipinas"[31][32] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children[37] and two parents, per tribute)[38] and came upon the following statistics:
Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province[31][32]
The Spanish Mestizo population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province [31]: 539 (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,[31]: 539 Cavite at 13%,[31]: 539 Laguna 2.28%,[31]: 539 Batangas 3%,[31]: 539 Bulacan 10.79%,[31]: 539 Bataan 16.72%,[31]: 539 Ilocos 1.38%,[32]: 31 Pangasinan 3.49%,[32]: 31 Albay 1.16%,[32]: 54 Cebu 2.17%,[32]: 113 Samar 3.27%,[32]: 113
Iloilo 1%,[32]: 113 Capiz 1%,[32]: 113 Bicol 20%,[39] and Zamboanga 40%.[39] According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.[31]: 539 Spanish-Filipinos maintaining a minimum median of 5% of the total Philippine population, once summing up all provinces.
Today, the word mestizo is shortened as tisoy just as is the word Pinoy for Filipino. It is used for all Filipinos with foreign ancestry, particularly those born in the diaspora or as children of recent immigrants.
^Mallat, Jean (1846). Les Philippines; histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie Vol. 2. Arthus Bertrand. p. 135.
^Macdonald, Roderick (2021). Open and Closed Economies Lessons from the Philippines and Vietnam. Springer International Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9783030795344.
^Chester L. Hunt (1954) Sociology in the Philippine setting: A modular approach, p. 118, Phoenix Pub. House
^Chua, Amy (2003). World On Fire. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. pp. 3, 6. ISBN978-0385721868.
^Gambe, Annabelle (2000). Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 33. ISBN978-0312234966.
^Folk, Brian (2003). Ethnic Business: Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN978-1138811072.
Blair, E. H. and Robertson, J.A. (editors) (1907). History of the Philippine Islands Vols. 1 and 2 by Dr. Antonio de Morga (Translated and Annotated in English). The Arthur H. Clark Company. Cleveland, Ohio.
Tan, Hock Beng (1994). Tropical Architecture and Interiors. Page One Publishing Pte Ltd. Singapore.
Tettoni, Luca Invernizzi and Sosrowardoyo, Tara (1997). Filipino Style. Periplus Editions Ltd. Hong Kong, China.
Weightman, George H. (February 1960). The Philippine Chinese: A Cultural History of A Marginal Trading Company. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Information Service.
Wickberg, Edgar (March 1964). "The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History". The Journal of Southeast Asian History, 5(1), 62–100. Lawrence, Kansas: The University of Kansas, CEAS.
^Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt
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