在1931年,西德尼·查普曼和文森.C.費拉羅(Vincenzo C. A. Ferraro)寫了一篇文章:"磁暴的新理論"(A New Theory of Magnetic Storms),試圖解釋這種現象[4]。它們認為,每當太陽發出閃焰時,它也會釋放出電漿雲,現在稱為日冕物質拋射。他們寫到:"這些電漿以113天內抵達地球的速度移動",然而我們現在知道這段旅程只需要1到5天。他們還寫到:"然後雲壓縮地球磁場,使得地球表面的磁場增強[5]。"
^ 6.06.1Gonzalez, W. D., J. A. Joselyn, Y. Kamide, H. W. Kroehl, G. Rostoker, B. T. Tsurutani, and V. M. Vasyliunas (1994), What is a Geomagnetic Storm?, J. Geophys. Res., 99(A4), 5771–5792.
^[1] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) Sugiura, M., and T. Kamei, Equatorial Dst index 1957-1986, IAGA Bulletin, 40, edited by A. BerthelJer and M. MenvielleI,S GI Publ. Off., Saint. Maur-des-Fosses, France, 1991.
^[2] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) World Data Center for Geomagnetism, Kyoto
^Russell, Randy. Geomagnetic Storms. Windows to the Universe. National Earth Science Teachers Association. March 29, 2010 [4 August 2013]. (原始内容存档于2013-06-06).
^Knipp, Delores J.; B. J. Fraser; M. A. Shea; D. F. Smart. On the Little‐Known Consequences of the 4 August 1972 Ultra‐Fast Coronal Mass Ejecta: Facts, Commentary and Call to Action. Space Weather. 2018, 16. doi:10.1029/2018SW002024.
^High-voltage power grid disturbances during geomagnetic storms Stauning, P., Proceedings of the Second Solar Cycle and Space Weather Euroconference, 24–29 September 2001, Vico Equense, Italy. Editor: Huguette Sawaya-Lacoste. ESA SP-477, Noordwijk: ESA Publications Division, ISBN92-9092-749-6, 2002, p. 521 - 524
^Webber, W. R.; McDonald, F. B.; Lockwood, J. A.; Heikkila, B. The effect of the July 14, 2000 "Bastille Day" solar flare event on >70 MeV galactic cosmic rays observed at V1 and V2 in the distant heliosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002, 29 (10): 1377–1380. Bibcode:2002GeoRL..29.1377W. doi:10.1029/2002GL014729.
^Thomson, N. R., C. J. Rodger, and R. L. Dowden (2004), Ionosphere gives size of greatest solar flare, Geophys. Res. Lett. 31, L06803, doi:10.1029/2003GL019345
^Archived copy(PDF). [2011-05-17]. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2011-07-28). Halloween Space Weather Storms of 2003, NOAA Technical Memorandum OAR SEC-88, Space Environment Center, Boulder, Colorado, June 2004
^[4]Severe Space Weather Events - Understanding Societal and Economic Impacts – Workshop Report, National Research Council of the National Academies, The National Academies Press, Washington, D. C., 2008
^[5] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) ‘Geomagnetic Storms,’ CENTRA Technology, Inc. report (14 January 2011) prepared for the Office of Risk Management and Analysis, United States Department of Homeland Security