Supercruise

Supercruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft without using afterburner. Many supersonic military aircraft are not capable of supercruise and can maintain Mach 1+ flight only in short bursts with afterburners. Aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird are designed to cruise at supersonic speed with afterburners enabled.

Some fighter jets are capable of supercruise but only at high altitudes and in a clean configuration, so the term may imply "a significant increase in effective combat speed with a full weapons load over existing types".[1] One of the pre-eminent military examples of supercruise is the F-22 Raptor, for which supercruise was defined as "the ability to cruise at speeds of one and a half times the speed of sound or greater without the use of afterburner for extended periods in combat configuration."[2]

One of the best-known examples of an aircraft capable of supercruise, and the only notable non-military example, was the Concorde. Due to its long service as a commercial airliner, Concorde holds the record for the most time spent supersonic; more than all other western aircraft combined.[3]

History

The English Electric Lightning was one of the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound in level flight without using afterburning.

Concorde routinely supercruised most of the way over the Atlantic, enabling it to travel from London and Paris to New York in just over three hours, a record which has yet to be surpassed by any other commercial aircraft.

A few early supersonic aircraft attained speeds just beyond the speed of sound without using afterburning.

On 3 August 1954, a Gerfaut research aircraft powered by an SNECMA Atar 101D2A engine exceeded Mach 1 in level flight without using afterburning.[4][5]

The first production aircraft to exceed Mach 1 in level flight without afterburning was the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter after its J65 engine was replaced with a J79. The maximum speed without afterburning was Mach 1.05.[6]

The P.1 prototype of the English Electric Lightning, powered by non-afterburning Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines, exceeded Mach 1 on 11 August 1954. A week previously, on 4 August, the P.1, WG760 flown by Roland Beamont on its maiden flight, had unknowingly exceeded Mach 1 in a climb.[7] During development testing at English Electric it was established that the Lightning had a stabilized speed capability in level flight, without afterburning, of about Mach 1.2 and for the T.4 (2-seat trainer) 1.08.[8] Flying just above the speed of sound without using afterburning, although done by the contractor as part of some flight trials does not appear to have been relevant to the operational capability of the aircraft. Service trials established intercept profiles for subsonic and supersonic targets at different altitudes with subsonic cruising at a maximum of Mach 0.95 with all supersonic speeds beyond subsonic cruise attained with afterburning.[9]

All the Fairey Delta 2 initial supersonic test flying to Mach 1.1 was done without afterburning. Selecting the afterburner, which initially only had a maximum selection with no intermediate positions, would have caused an uncontrollable rapid acceleration to potentially hazardous speeds; i.e., too far beyond previously established flutter-free speeds.[10]

Only the supersonic transports (SST), Concorde, and the second version of the Tu-144 (the Tu-144D) spent most of their time cruising at their design speeds without needing afterburning. Afterburning was added to Concorde for take-off to cope with weight increases that came after the initial design. It was also used to accelerate through the high-drag transonic speed range, not because the extra thrust was required, but because it was available and improved the operating economics. The redesigned Tu-144D used engines with no afterburners which, together with other improvements, increased the full payload range from 3,080 to 5,330 km (1,910 to 3,310 mi) (Concorde's operational range was 6,470 km or 4,020 mi).[11]

Military use

Qualitative variation in Cd factor (drag coefficient) with Mach number (speed) for aircraft; supercruising above Mach 2 is efficient.

The United States Air Force set supercruise as a core requirement for the Advanced Tactical Fighter program,[12] which resulted in the F-22 Raptor. The F-22 Raptor's supercruise capabilities are touted as a major performance advantage over other fighters, with supercruise being demonstrated exceeding Mach 1.5.[13][2] Supercruise capability provides advantages for stealth aircraft because an afterburner plume reflects radar signals and creates a significant infrared signature.[14] Virtually all fighters prior to the F-22 cruise at Mach 0.8–0.9 while carrying a normal weapons load.[1]

The F-22 Raptor is capable of supercruise above Mach 1.5 (but is seen here with afterburners).

The Dassault Rafale is capable of supercruising with four missiles and a belly drop tank.[15]

The Eurofighter Typhoon is capable of supercruise at Mach 1.5.[16]

There are a few engines in production that are designed to facilitate tactically significant supercruise:

• The Pratt & Whitney PW1120 was used on the IAI Super Phantom 2000 that had supercruise capability.[17][18]
• The two Pratt & Whitney F119 that power the F-22 Raptor make it the most capable supercruise-capable fighter aircraft in service. The F-22 Raptor can supercruise above Mach 1.5 without external stores.[19][20][13]
• The EJ200 engine built by EuroJet Turbo GmbH mounted in the Eurofighter Typhoon. It is capable of supercruising at Mach 1.5 with an air superiority missile load.[16] Typhoon pilots have stated that Mach 1.3 is attainable in combat configuration with external stores.[21]
• The General Electric F414G in the JAS 39 Gripen NG is designed for supercruise and has achieved Mach 1.2,[22] or Mach 1.1 with an air to air missile load.[23]
• The two Snecma M88s that power the Dassault Rafale enable the Rafale to supercruise with four missiles and a belly drop tank.[15]

Independently, Russia is working on izdeliye 30 (after AL-31F and AL-41F derivatives modifications, like izdeliye 117S turbofan) and RD-33MKRU Morskaja Osa; an all-new AL-41 engine with a complete redesign is underway to add supercruise ability to the Sukhoi Su-57. This has yet to bear fruit, but the stop-gap 117S engine, produced by this program, may achieve the supercruise goal already. While testing a Su-35BM fighter equipped with these engines, it managed to accelerate past Mach 1 without using the afterburner, suggesting that it had supercruise capability. It has yet to be seen whether this will be possible with a combat load.[24]

Aircraft with supercruise ability

Aircraft	Supercruise speed	Production Year	Service status
Sukhoi Su-57[25]	Mach 1.30	2020	In service
Dassault Rafale[15]	Mach 1.40[26]	1986	In service
Eurofighter Typhoon[16]	Mach 1.50	1994	In service
Saab JAS-39E Gripen[22]	Mach 1.10[23]	2019[27]	In service
General Dynamics F-16XL[28]	Mach 1.10	1982	Retired (prototype)
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor[13][2]	Mach 1.76	1996	In service
Lockheed YF-22[29]	Mach 1.58[30]	1989	Retired (prototype)
Northrop YF-23[29]	Mach 1.72[31]	1989	Retired (prototype)
Concorde[32]	Mach 2.02[33]	1965	Retired
EWR VJ 101	Mach 1.04[34]	1962	Retired (prototype)

See also

• Index of aviation articles

References

Citations

1. "Supercruise". Defence Aviation. 5 September 2011. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
2. "F-22 demonstrates 'supercruise' for first time". Air Force News. Federation of American Scientists. 21 July 1999. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
3. "Defence & Security Intelligence & Analysis - IHS Jane's 360". janes.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2001. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
4. Gunston 2006, p. 160.
5. "1956 - 0414 - Flight Archive". flightglobal.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2022. Despite the greater frontal area the Gerfaut remains a level-supersonic aeroplane without afterburning, although the engine is now so equipped.
6. Gunston 1975, p. 193.
7. "English Electric - Armstrong Siddeley - Rolls-Royce Avon - 1957 - 0541 - Flight Archive". flightglobal.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
8. Beamont 1980, p. 110-116.
9. Caygill 2004, fig. 1 & 2.
10. Twiss 2005, p. 44.
11. Gordon, Komissarov & Rigmant 2015, p. 248.
12. Mark A. Lorell; Hugh P. Levaux. "The Cutting Edge: A Half Century of US Fighter Aircraft R&D" (PDF). RAND Corporation. p. 141. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
13. "F-22 Raptor". U.S. Air Force.
14. "Stealth design of airplanes / stealth aircraft". fighter-planes.com. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
15. "FOX THREE" (PDF). Dassault Aviation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2007. Retrieved 3 March 2022. More significantly, it can supercruise in dry power, even with four missiles and a belly drop tank.
16. "Eurofighter Typhoon - Luftüberlegenheitsrolle". Archived from the original on 15 August 2009.
17. Spick 1985, pp. 289-90.
18. "Boeing "Super Phantom"". July 25, 2008. Archived from the original on July 25, 2008.
19. General Jumper qualifies in F/A-22 Raptor, af.mil, January 13, 2005
20. Majumdar, Dave. "Lockheed begins test flights of final Raptor". Flightglobal. Reed Business Information. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 30 March 2022. The aircraft is capable of cruising at around Mach 1.8 without afterburners and has a top speed of around Mach 2.2.
21. "EuroFighter Typhoon". fighter-planes.com. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
22. "Gripen Supercruises" (press release). Archived from the original on 23 October 2009. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
23. Hoyle, Craig (25 April 2008). "Saab's Demo aircraft to highlight Gripen NG capabilities". FlightGlobal. Archived from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
24. "О ходе испытаний нового российского истребителя Су-35БМ: Наука и техника: Lenta.ru". lenta.ru. Retrieved 2015-09-04.
25. Su-57 Fighter Jet with Super-cruising Engines Displayed at Army 2022, DefenseMirror—Adresses the display of the SU57 production model fitted with new Saturn AL-41F1 (117) engines allowing Supercruise ability at Mach 1.3.
26. "Fiche Rafale le-Bourget 2011". 20 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
27. "Gripen e enters serial production as Saab targets sales".
28. Piccirillo 2014, p. 202: "F-16XL-2 was also able to demonstrate limited supercruise performance by maintaining Mach 1.1 at an altitude of 20,000 feet in full military power without resorting to the use of afterburner."
29. Stevenson, Richard W. (April 24, 1991). "Air Force Chooses Lockheed's Design for Fighter Plane" – via NYTimes.com.
30. Jenkins & Landis 2008, p. 236.
31. Paul Metz, Jim Sandberg (27 August 2015). YF-23 DEM/VAL Presentation by Test Pilots Paul Metz and Jim Sandberg. Western Museum of Flight: Peninsula Seniors Production.
32. Powerplant, ConcordeSST—describes full cycle of Concorde's engine from takeoff to touchdown, including the turning off of reheat to begin supercruise at Mach 1.7.
33. Schrader 1989, p. 64.
34. "1965 | 0043 | Flight Archive". 2016-03-05. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2024-09-16.

Bibliography

• Schrader, Richard K (1989). Concorde: The Full Story of the Anglo-French SST. Kent, UK: Pictorial Histories Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-929521-16-9.
• Jenkins, Dennis R.; Landis, Tony R. (2008). Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. Minnesota, US: Specialty Press. ISBN 978-1-58007-111-6.
• Gunston, Bill (2006). The Development of Jet and Turbine Aero Engines (4th ed.). Haynes Publishing. ISBN 1852606185.
• Gunston, Bill (1975). Early supersonic fighters of the West. New York. ISBN 978-0684144917.
• Beamont, Roland (1980). Testing years. London: I. Allen. ISBN 978-0711010727.
• Goodall, Jim (1992). America's stealth fighters and bombers. Osceola, Wis.: Motorbooks International. ISBN 978-0879386092.
• Caygill, Peter (2004). Lightning from the Cockpit: Flying the Supersonic Legend. Barnsley: Leo Cooper. ISBN 1844150828.
• Twiss, Peter (2005). Faster Than the Sun. London: Grub Street. ISBN 1904943373.
• Gordon, Yefim; Komissarov, Dmitry; Rigmant, Vladimir (May 2015). Tupolev Tu-144: The Soviet Supersonic Airliner. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9780764348945.
• Piccirillo, Albert C. (2014). Elegance in Flight: A comprehensive history of the F-16XL experimental prototype and its role in NASA flight research (PDF). Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 978-1-62683-022-6. Retrieved 20 February 2023.