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Sanskrit has inherited from its reconstructed parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of nominal morphology. Endings may be added directly to the root, or more frequently and especially in the later language, to a stem formed by the addition of a suffix to it.[1]
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language that preserves all the declensional types found in Proto-Indo-European, including a few residual heteroclitic r/n-stems.[2][3]
Basics
Declension of a noun in Sanskrit[α] involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': three numbers and eight cases, yielding a combination of 24 possible forms, although owing to syncretism of some forms, the practical number is around 18 or so.[4] Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.
In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:[5][6]
The oldest system of declension was to affix the endings[λ] directly to the nominal root. This was an ancient feature already in decline in later Proto-Indo-European. Of the daughter languages, this system has been best preserved by Sanskrit, especially the older form of Indo-Aryan termed Vedic Sanskrit.[7]
In Proto-Indo-European, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.
Declension of a thematic stem is less complicated as a host of Sandhi rules apply no more, and the later stages of the Sanskrit language see an increase in the profusion of thematic nouns. Thus in classical Sanskrit, the thematic pā́da-s is more likely to be found than its athematic predecessor.[8][9]
locative: corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions in, on, at, and by.
vocative: used for a word that identifies an addressee.[10]
The kāraka classification
In the ancient literature, Pāṇini identified six classes as kārakas,[b] operating as accessories to a verb. The six kārakas are the nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, and locative cases.[11] He defined them as follows (Aṣtādhyāyi, I.4.24–54):
Kartā :[c] 'he/that which is independent in action'. This is equivalent to the nominative case.[12]
Karman :[d] 'what the agent seeks most to attain': the accusative.
Karaṇa[e] 'that which effects most': the instrumental.
Sampradāna :[f] 'he whom one aims at with the object': the dative.
Apādāna :[g] '(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)': the ablative.
Pāṇini did not identify the genitive Sambandha and vocative Sambodhana as kārakas.[13]
Endings
The basic scheme of suffixion[μ] is given in the table below and applies to many nouns and adjectives.
However, according to the gender and the final consonant or vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are internal sandhi rules dictating the form of the inflected word. Furthermore, these are standalone forms, which when used in actual phrases are subject to external sandhi, such as, the mutation of -s to -ḥ or -r and so on.[15][16]
Singular
Dual
Plural
Masc./Fem
Neu.
Masc./Fem
Neu.
Masc./Fem
Neu.
Nominative
-s
-∅
-au
-ī
-as
-i
Accusative
-am
Instrumental
-ā
-bhyām
-bhis
Dative
-e
-bhyas
Ablative
-as
Genitive
-os
-ām
Locative
-i
-su
Declension
Classification
Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:
Short-vowel stems
a-stems
i- and u-stems
ṛ-stems
Long-vowel stems
ā-stems
ī- and ū-stems
Diphthong stems
Consonant stems
Bare stems
as/is/us-stems
an- and in-stems
ant-/mant-/vant-stems
vāṅs-stems
When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms. This happens most profusely in the a-stem class. However, for reasons noted below, grammars both traditional and modern tend to start with this class.[17][18][19]
a-stems
The vast majority of nouns in Sanskrit belong to this class, and are masculine or neuter. The position of the accent is maintained throughout, except in the masculine vocative singular. The paradigms are illustrated in their pre-sandhi forms, along with the formation treatment using two stems in the masculine devá-[A][i] and kā́ma-[B] and two in the neuter yugá-[C][a] and phála-[D] with different syllables accented.[20][21][22][23]
a-stem adjectives are also to be found in big numbers, they are invariably masculine or neuter – feminines being formed either in -ā or, less frequently -ī. a-stem adjectives are also declined as below.[24]
Neuters only differ from the masculine in the nominative and accusative forms, the two forms always being the same:
a-stem neuter sing, dual, plu
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
yug·á-
phál·a-
Nom, Acc SG
-Ø
-a- + -m
-am
yug·á·m
phál·a·m
Nom, Acc DU
-ī
-a- + -ī
-e
yug·é
phál·e
Nom, Acc PL
-i
-a- + an + -i
-āni
yug·ā́ni
phál·āni
i- and u-stems
i-stems
Final i-stem endings are closer to the standard set compared to the a-stem declension. In general, the -i is gunated in some cases, and a -n- is inserted intervocalically between the stem and the ending in a few other cases, especially in the neuter. The paradigms are illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms for masculine agní- ,[E][l] feminine gáti-[F][a] and neuter vā́ri- .[G][26][27]
Neuters as always remain identical in the nominative and accusative, and also in the vocative. In the other cases, a -n-[n][ν] is inserted between the stem and the standard endings in all those cases where to avoid a collision of two vowels, making the whole process almost perfectly straightforward.
i-stem neut
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
vā́ri-
N.A.V
-Ø
–
-Ø
vā́ri
Ins
-ā
-n-
-nā
vā́ri·ṇ·ā
Dat
-e
-n-
-ne
vā́ri·ṇ·e
Abl,Gen
-as
-n-
-nas
vā́ri·ṇ·as
Loc
-i
-n-
-ni
vā́ri·ṇ·i
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
vā́ri-
N.A.V
-ī
-n-
-nī
vā́ri·ṇ·ī
I.D.A
-bhyām
–
-bhyām
vā́ri·bhyām
Gen, Loc
-os
-n-
-nos
vā́ri·ṇ·os
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
vā́ri-
N.A.V
-i
-īni
-īni
vā́rī·ṇ·i
Ins
-bhis
–
-bhis
vā́ri·bhis
Dat, Abl
-bhyas
–
-bhyas
vā́ri·bhyas
Gen
-ām
-ī + -n- ām
-īnām
vā́r·īṇām
Loc
-su
–
-su
vā́ri·ṣu
u-stems
i- and u-stem declensions are so similar that they can be grouped together. The u-stem paradigms illustrated here in their pre-sandhi forms are for masculine śátru- ,[H] feminine dhenú-[I] and neuter mádhu- .[J][a][28][29]
Neuters are also just as straightforward as for i-stems.
u-stem neut
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
mádhu-
N.A.V
-Ø
–
-Ø
mádhu
Ins
-ā
-n-
-nā
mádhu·n·ā
Dat
-e
-n-
-ne
mádhu·n·e
Abl, Gen
-as
-n-
-nas
mádhu·n·as
Loc
-i
-n-
-ni
mádhu·n·i
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
mádhu-
N.A.V
-ī
-n-
-nī
mádhu·n·ī
I.D.A
-bhyām
–
-bhyām
mádhu·bhyām
Gen, Loc
-os
-n-
-nos
mádhu·n·os
Case
Std Ending
Treatment
Ending
mádhu-
N.A.V
-i
-i -ūni
-ūni
mádhū·n·i
Ins
-bhis
–
-bhis
mádhu·bhis
Dat, Abl
-bhyas
–
-bhyas
mádhu·bhyas
Gen
-ām
-ū + -n- ām
-ūnām
mádh·ūnām
Loc
-su
–
-su
mádhu·ṣu
i- and u-stem adjectives are a small class of so—called primary adjectives, such as bahus, -us, -u[K] and śucis, -is, -i ,[L] as well as ones adapted from nouns like bahuvrīhis. They are inflected like the i- and u-stem nouns described above; occasionally the feminine u may gain an additional ī and become vī.[30]
ṛ-stems
ṛ-stems are predominantly agental derivatives like dātṛ ,[M] though also include kinship terms like pitṛ ,[N][a]mātṛ ,[O][a] and svasṛ .[P][a][31] The neuter equivalents of derivative agental nouns once again form secondary stems in -n, as in the -i and -u classes.
A single irregular i-stem noun,[32]sakhi ,[R][q] has a stem in -i but declines similarly to the above – simply with y i ī taking the place of r ṛ ṝ:
Singular
Dual
Plural
Nom
sákh·ā
sákh·āy·au
sákh·āy·as
Acc
sákh·āy·am
sákh·īn
Ins
sákhy·ā
sákhi·bhyām
sákhi·bhis
Dat
sákhy·e
sákhi·bhy·as
Abl
sákh·ay·ur
Gen
sákhy·os
sákh·īnām
Loc
sákhy·au, sákh·ay·i
sákhi·ṣu
Voc
sákh·e
sákh·āy·au
sákh·āy·as
ā, ī- and ū-stems
This category is made of ā-, ī- and ū-stems, almost entirely feminine, polysyllabic derivative nouns.[33]
ā-stems
A few forms deviate from the standard in many of which an interspersed -y- can be observed. The vocative also undergoes the usual accent shift.[34][35]
One or more of these stems may be identical for some words, but this is generally not regularly predictable from either the nominative singular or the citation form stem. While the stem ending may undergo expected internal sandhi changes as normal, the endings themselves are gracefully regular.[41][42]
Participial forms in -ant/-at decline as below, with some stem variation with the -n-.[44] Possessives in -mant and vant- display similar behavior, the difference that stands out is the nom. sing. masc. -mān & -vān.[45] Forms not mentioned fit the existing pattern with full regularity:
These forms exhibit similarities with the -vant stems illustrated above, with the main exception that in the weakest forms, before vowel endings, -vāṅs is zero-graded alongside the disappearance of the -ṅ-.[46][47]
A small closed class of comparatives and superlatives are directly formed on adjectival roots, after dropping the original stem suffix. The comparative takes the suffix -īyān (yāṃsas), yasī, yas, which declines as a consonant- and ī-stem adjective; the superlative takes -iṣṭhas, ā, am. The root is strengthened to the guṇa grade.
from mahān ,[AP][w] root mah-, is formed mahīyān, mahiṣṭhas;
from sthiras ,[AQ] root sthi-, is formed stheyān, stheṣṭhas.
In some adjectives the original form of the root has been obscured by internal sandhi, making the outcome somewhat irregular. Thus:
from gur-us ,[AR][x] originally g(w)ṛ-us, comes garīyān, gariṣṭhas;
from dīrgh-as ,[AS][a] originally dṝgh- < dṛHgh- (where H denotes a laryngeal), a guṇa placed in the second possible slot [σ] gives draHgh- > drāgh-, whence drāghīyān, drāghiṣṭhas;
Secondary derivation
The secondary suffixes of comparison are -taras, ā, am for comparative and -tamas, ā, am for superlative. They are appended to the inflectional base, with no modification of the stem. Usually, the pada stem is used for consonant-stem adjectives, but those in a simple -n sometimes retain it.
priyatara-, priyatama- from priya-;
vṛṣatara-, vṛṣatama- from vṛṣan-, but vṛṣantama- is also attested.
Numerals
Cardinal numbers
The numbers[48][49] from one to ten, along with cognates in closely related languages, are:
Numerals
Sanskrit
Latin
Proto-Indo-European
éka-
ūn-
*Hoi-no-, *Hoi-k(ʷ)o-
dvá-
duo
*d(u)wo-
trí-
trēs, tria
*trei-, *tri-
catúr-
quattuor
*kʷetwor-, *kʷetur-
páñca-
quīnque
*penkʷe
ṣáṣ-
sex
*s(w)eḱs
saptá-, sápta-
septem
*septm̥
aṣṭá-, áṣṭa-
octō
*oḱtō
náva-
novem
*newn̥
dáśa-
decem
*deḱm̥(t)
All numbers in Sanskrit can be declined in all the cases. From one to four, the cardinal numerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, gender and case; from 5 to 19, in number and case, with only one form for all genders; from 20 onwards in case only.[50]
Éka is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. Dvá appears only in the dual. Trí and catúr are declined as below:[51]
Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their declension largely like other declinable classes such as nouns, adjectives and numerals, so that they can all be classed together under nominals. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes.[54][55]
Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: person.[56]
Pronouns[τ] are declined for case[υ], number[φ], and gender[χ]. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.
The official list of Sanskrit pronouns is: sarva, viśva, ubha, ubhaya, utara, utama, anya, anyatara, tvat, tva, nema, sama, sima, pūrva, para, avara, dakṣiṇa, uttara, apara, adhara, sva, antara; tyad, tad, yad, etad, idam, adam; eka, dvi, yuṣmad, asmad, and kim.[57]
First- and second-person pronouns
Sanskrit pronouns in the first[ψ] and second[ω] person are theoretically termed asmad and yuṣmad respectively.
They resemble one another in how they are declined, and similarly do not mark gender. These pronouns have shortened, enclitic forms in the accusative, dative, and genitive cases (parenthesized in the table below).[58][59]
sing., dual, plu.
Case
asmad
yuṣmad
N.
ahám
tvám
A.
mā́m (mā)
tvā́m (tvā)
I.
máyā
tváyā
D.
máhyam (me)
túbhyam (te)
Ab.
mát
tvát
G.
máma (me)
táva (te)
L.
máy·i
tváy·i
Case
asmad
yuṣmad
N.A.V
āvā́m
yuvā́m
I.D.Ab.
āvā́·bhyām
yuvā́·bhyām
G.L.
āváy·os
yuváy·os
& A.D.G.
(nau)
(vām)
Case
asmad
yuṣmad
N.
vayám
yūyám
A.
asmā́n (nas)
yuṣmā́n (vas)
I.
asmā́·bhis
yuṣmā́·bhis
D.
asmá·bhyam (nas)
yuṣmá·bhyam (vas)
Ab.
asmát
yuṣmát
G.
asmā́kam (nas)
yuṣmā́kam (vas)
L.
asmā́·su
yuṣmā́·su
The forms mad, asmad, tvad and yuṣmad can be used in derivation and composition: mát·kṛta, mát·sakhi, tvát·pitṛ, etc.[60]
Demonstratives
Sanskrit does not have true third person pronouns, but its demonstratives play this role when they stand independently of a substantive. The four different demonstratives in Sanskrit[z] are:
tad, adas
idam, etad
Both tad and adas are used for objects of reference that are far away, the latter being more emphatic. Both are translated by the English distal demonstrative that.
By contrast, idam and etad are used for nearby objects, and, again, the latter is more emphatic and has a strong deictic meaning. These two pronouns are translated by the English proximal demonstrative this.[61]
The masculine singular nominative form of tad, sas exhibits irregular sandhi behaviour — before consonants saḥ becomes sa, giving, for instance, sa gajaḥ[AT] rather than the expected *so gajaḥ.[62][aa]
etad, is declined almost identically to tad. Its paradigm is obtained by prefixing e- to all the forms of tat. Consequently [ab] the masculine and feminine nominative singular forms of this pronoun are eṣas and eṣā.[65]
The declension of idam is somewhat irregular because it is formed from two different stems, i- and a-.[ac] The nominative and accusative forms, except the three singular nominatives, are regularly formed with the stem im-, and the remaining forms from a-; an extra -n- is infixed should the ending start with a vowel.
Most of the forms for adas are regularly formed using the stem u- the same way as if it were a-, with the combination *ui- becoming ī- in the plural. The nominative dual and instrumental singular are formed like u-stem nouns.[67][68][69]
sing., dual, plu.
Case
tad m.n.
idam m.n
adas m.n
tad f
idam f
adas f
N.
sás, tát
ayám, idám
asaú, adás
sā
iyám
asaú
A.
tám, tát
imám, idám
amúm, adás
tā́m
imā́m
amū́m
I.
téna
anéna
amúnā
táyā
anáyā
amúyā
D.
tásmai
asmaí
amúṣmai
tásyai
asyaí
amúṣyai
Ab.
tásmāt
asmā́t
amúṣmāt
tásyās
asyā́s
amúṣyās
G.
tásya
asyá
amúṣya
tásyās
asyā́s
amúṣyās
L.
tásmin
asmín
amúṣmin
tásyām
asyā́m
amúṣyām
Case
tad
idam
adas
tad
idam
adas
N.A.V
taú, té
imaú, imé
amū́
té
imé
amū́
I.D.Ab.
tā́bhyām
ābhyā́m
amū́bhyām
tā́bhyām
ā́bhyām
amū́bhyām
G.L.
táyos
anáyos
amúyos
táyos
anáyos
amúyos
Case
tad
idam
adas
tad
idam
adas
N.
te, tā́ni
imé, imā́ni
amī́, amū́ni
tās
imā́s
amū́s
A.
tā́n, tā́ni
imā́n, imā́ni
amū́n, amū́ni
tā́s
imā́s
amū́s
I.
taís
ebhís
amī́bhis
tā́bhis
ābhís
amū́bhis
D. Ab.
tébhyas
ebhyás
amī́bhyas
tā́bhyas
ābhyás
amū́bhyas
G.
téṣām
eṣā́m
amī́ṣām
tā́sām
āsā́m
amū́ṣām
L.
téṣu
eṣú
amī́ṣu
tā́su
āsú
amū́ṣu
Possessive pronouns
asmad allows the following forms of possessive pronouns:
madīya-, māmaka-, māmakīna-
asmadīya-, asmāka-, asmākīna-
The feminines are in -ā.
yuṣmad has these:
tvadīya-, tāvaka-, tāvakīna-
yuṣmadīya-, yauṣmāka-, yauṣmākīṇa-
tad and etad have tadīya- and etadīya- respectively.
The feminines are again in -ā, except the -aka forms where it is -akī. These are all conjugated like regular a-, ā and ī-stem forms.[70][71]
Polite pronoun
Technically a noun, bhavant[ad] literally means 'Your Honour' and is treated like a third-person subject. It carries, however, a second person meaning and connotes politeness. This is declined very much like any vant-stem adjective.
This use of bhavant is common enough to suggest that the word should be treated as a polite variant of the second person pronoun, rather than as a more elaborate honorific construction. Bhavant declines like all stems ending in -ant.
In talking of someone not present, one may use tatrabhavant, and conversely for someone present, atrabhavant, whether being addressed or not.[72]
Enclitic pronouns
The enclitic pronoun enam is found only in a few oblique cases and numbers. It is unemphatic and mostly refers to persons.[73]
Singular
Dual
Plural
Masc.
Neu.
Fem.
Masc.
Neu.
Fem.
Masc.
Neu.
Fem.
Accusative
enam
enat
enām
enau
ene
enān
enāni
enāḥ
Instrumental
enena
Genitive/locative
enayos
The k-y-t series of interrogative, relative, and correlative pronouns
In Sanskrit, interrogative and relative pronouns are formed analogously to tat. The interrogative pronoun kim is declined like tat, replacing the initial t or s with k. The only exception to this rule is the neuter nominative/accusative singular form, which is kim rather than the expected *kat. The relative pronoun yat is declined like tat, without exception replacing the initial t or s with y.[74]
The demonstrative tat functions as a correlative pronoun when used in "independent clauses that 'complete' relative clauses to form complex sentences"—unlike in English (where one can say, for example, "The girl with whom you were speaking is my sister"), relative pronouns must be accompanied by correlative pronouns (which, if applied to the previous example, would be: "The girl with whom you are speaking, she is my sister").[75]
For a Sanskrit example of a complex sentence using corresponding relative and correlative pronouns, consider: yasmin vane vasati rāmas tasmin vane na vidyante rākṣasāḥ ('In the forest where Rāma lives, there are no demons'). In that example, the pronouns are alike in gender, number, and case, but matching relative–correlative pronouns need not be alike in case—for example: yena puruṣeṇa saha bhāṣate nṛpaḥ sa muniḥ ('The man with whom the king is speaking is a sage').[76]
Indefinite and absolute negative phrases
Aside from their primary uses, the interrogative and relative pronouns are also used to form indefinite phrases. The two ways of forming indefinite phrases are:
placing a relative pronoun before its corresponding interrogative pronoun, which in turn is followed by the particleapi (for example: yat kim api, which means 'something or another'), and
placing one of api, cana, or cit after the interrogative pronoun (for example: kiṃcit, which means 'something').
As is evident in the examples, the first method of indicating indefiniteness is stronger, while the latter is more subtle and can simply be translated by an indefinite article in English.[77]
The absolute negative, semantically functioning as the negation of existential quantification, is formed by negating an indefinite phrase.[78]
Reflexive pronouns
There are a number of words in Sanskrit that function as reflexive pronouns. The indeclinable svayam can indicate reflexivity pertaining to subjects of any person or number, and—since subjects in Sanskrit can appear in the nominative, instrumental, or genitive cases—it can have the sense of any of these cases. The noun ātman ('self') and adjective svaḥ ('own'; cf. Latin suus) decline so as to express reflexivity in any case, person, and number. The former is always in the masculine, even when used in relation to a female subject, but the latter declines for gender.[79]
Pronominal adjectives
Several adjectives in Sanskrit are declined pronominally. That is, their declension differs from ordinary adjectival declension of a-stems and instead follows the declension of tat in certain respects.
anya ('other'), anyatara ('either'), itara ('other'), katara ('which of two?'), katama ('which of many?'), and ekatama ('one of many') all follow the tat paradigm exactly.
sarva ('every', 'all'), ubhaya ('both'), eka ('one'), and ekatara ('either') follow the tat paradigm except in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -m rather than -t.
pūrva ('prior', 'east'), avara ('posterior', 'west'), adhara ('inferior', 'west'), uttara ('subsequent', 'north'), dakṣiṇa ('south'), para ('subsequent', 'other', 'opposite'), apara ('other', 'inferior'), antara ('outer'), and sva ('own') follow the tat paradigm except (1) in the neuter nominative/accusative singular, ending in -am rather than -at; (2) in the masculine/neuter ablative and locative singular, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āt and -e rather than -asmāt and -asmin; and (3) in the masculine nominative plural, sometimes (though not necessarily) ending in -āḥ rather than -e.
ardha ('half'), alpa ('little'), katipaya ('some'), prathama ('first'), carama ('last'), and dvaya/dvitaya ('twofold') generally follow the regular adjective declension for a-stems but sometimes (though not necessarily) follow tat in the masculine nominative plural, ending in -e rather than -āḥ.
dvitīya ('second') and tṛtīya ('third') optionally follow the declension of tat in the forms of the oblique cases in the singular.
Note that when any of these adjectives are at the end of a compound, they decline exactly like ordinary a-stem adjectives.[80]
Nominal derivation
Derivation or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types:[81][82]
Primary derivation – suffixes directly appended to roots[αα]
Secondary derivation – suffixes appended to derivative stems[αβ]
Word-compounding – combining one more word stems
Primary derivatives
The root usually undergoes some change of form first, typically to first-grade, or in some cases second-grade, strengthening. A final -n or -m may sometimes be lost, a short vowel may be first followed by a -t, a final palatal or h may revert to the corresponding guttural, and so on.[83][84]
a-suffix derivatives
A very large number of derivatives are formed under this category, with several semantic outcomes and with varying treatment of the root, including gradation, reduplication and no change.[85]
Another large class, mostly feminine action nouns, with some masculine agent nouns and adjectives. The root remains in zero-grade form, largely like past passive participles in -tá.[86]
These suffixes denote the quality of being, analogous to '-ness' and '-hood' in English. Cf Lat -tas (-ty), Slavic *-ьstvo. Coupled with the prefix a- 'un-', the sense of '-lessness' is derived.[94]
