|
Polifemo (opera)
Polifemo is an opera in three acts by Nicola Porpora with a libretto by Paolo Rolli. The opera is based on a combination of two mythological stories involving the cyclops Polyphemus: His killing of Acis and his blinding by Ulysses.[1] The last of five operas Porpora composed while residing in London, the opera premiered on 1 February 1735 at King's Theatre, and featured the famed castrato singers Farinelli and Senesino.[1][2] Polifemo was Porpora's second-most popular opera, after his Arianna in Nasso.[3] Background The beginning of the eighteenth century saw the rise of Italian culture in London. Not only was Italian literature popular, but there was a "sudden craze for Italian opera".[4][5] Among the many creative energies of Italian creators in the 18th century it was felt that opera best encapsulated the principles of neoclassicism.[6] Italian opera had been presented in London as early as 1705 with Thomas Clayton's Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus. The success of George Frideric Handel's first Italian opera for London, Rinaldo of 1711 and three subsequent operas led to the formation in 1720 of the Royal Academy of Music,[7] a company devoted to presenting Italian opera at King's Theatre. Despite the financial stability due in large part to backing from King George I,[8] the company collapsed in 1728, probably due to a combination of high fees for star singers as well as the changing tastes of the public, who had made The Beggar's Opera (first performed 29 January 1728) a hit.[8] Handel and his impresario John Jacob Heidegger were able to start a Second Royal Academy of Music in 1729. This second company was based on a subscription model. Although it started out moderately, its success grew with the re-engagement of Senesino, the castrato who had successfully performed in Handel's Italian operas of the "first" Royal Academy of Music.[9] Beginning in 1731, Handel began to incorporate English into his operas. In 1732 there had been a pirated version of his Acis and Galatea. Handel responded with a new production in while interpolating Italian arias from his dramatic cantata of 1708, Aci, Galatea e Polifemo.[9] While Handel did not abandon Italian opera entirely, he was aware of the public's changing tastes, moving away from heroic plots towards more magical elements while stretching the boundaries of opera seria.[4]  Though the castrato Senesino had often been featured in Handel's works, their relationship was fraught. The premiere of Handel's oratorio Deborah with prices in excess of what patrons would pay for an opera led to some consternation on the part of the public. It was also the culmination of disagreements between singer and composer. Senesino was fired a few weeks after the Deborah's premiere.[4] In solidarity with her colleague, soprano Francesca Cuzzoni also left the company. Through appeals to the nobility, Senesino, under the patronage of Frederick, Prince of Wales, was able to create a second company to rival Handel's: The Opera of the Nobility.[10] Nearly all of Handel's singers deserted his company for this new company[11] including Antonio Montagnana and Francesca Bertolli.[12] Porpora was invited to write operas for the company[13] and Paolo Rolli was hired as the company's official poet/librettist. Securing the theatre at Lincoln's Inn Fields, their first production was Porpora's Arianna in Naxo with a libretto by Rolli, presented 29 December 1733.[11] For the 1734–35 season, Handel's company took up residence at Covent Garden, allowing the Opera of the Nobility to take over King's Theatre at Haymarket. Compositional historyItalian opera in London depended on bold dramatic and scenic effects along with occasionally pageantry which would in turn inspire composers to produce evocative music.[14] Librettist Rolli favored mythological plots, based on French opera. This allowed for the incorporation of magic and supernatural effects, which opera of the time, typically based on historical incidents, would not allow.[14] Musicologist Darryl Jacqueline Dumigan wrote that in his writing he was "able to push the boundaries of the static opera seria conventions with a greater freedom of structure that challenged the prevailing rigid formula of alternating action contained in secco rcitative with suspension aria."[15] The plot is drawn from two sources, Ovid's Metamorphoses (book XIII, 750) which involves Polyphemus, Acis and Galatea as well as Homer's Odyssey which involve Ulysses (the Roman name for Odysseus), Polyphemus and Calypso. Rolli's libretto differs from Homer. The librettist has Calipso (Calypso) helping Ulisse (Ulysses) to thwart Polifemo (Polyphemus). (In Homer the episode with Polyphemus occurs prior to Ulysses's encounter with Calypso who is determined to win over Ulysses.[16]) Dumigan suggests that Rolli might have been aiming for more "dramatic truth." Despite Polifemo being an ugly and evil cyclops, he is allowed to show another side of his personality by revealing his despair at having lost his sight. Galatea, who loses immortality upon the death of Aci, is allowed to plead for her life, revealing more of a three-dimensional character.[16] Performance historyAfter its premiere on 1 February 1735, Polifemo had eleven subsequent performances.[3] The London Daily Post and General Advertiser wrote that it had attracted "one of the greatest audiences that hath been known this season."[3] the work's final performance of the season was 7 June 1735.[17] A revised version of Polifemo opened the following season on 28 October 1735, and was received "with great applause by a numerous audience."[18] The revision was necessitated in part by the arrival of the singer Santa Tasca from Italy, who assumed the part of Calipso from Bertolli. This revision lasted only three performance due to Farinelli's becoming too ill to perform.[18] Its final performance took place on 4 November 1735.[19] Thus in its first year, Polifemo had a total of 14 performances.[20] It was the most successful of Porpora's London operas after the composer's first opera for London, Arianna in Nasso.[21] VersionsThere were two versions of Polifemo. One libretto is 61 pages and lacks the character of Nerea.[22] The other libretto gives the date of 1734 but is actually from 1735 (since at that time the English reckoned the new year from 25 March), includes Nerea in a list of characters, and is 69 pages.[23] Based on her study of the published libretti, Darryl Jacqueline Dumigan believed the revised version of Polifemo is the one with the shorter libretto where the character of Nerea is eliminated. While this is possible, it would mean the arias Nell'attendere il mio bene and Alto Giove would be eliminated from the opera. Given the popularity of those arias based on numerous recent recordings, it seems unlikely that these showpieces would have been eliminated. Clarity on the different versions of Polifemo await further study. The table below lists alterations between versions. (Scenes that do not involve alteration are not listed.)
Synopsis Act 1Scene 1: A calm sea by the Sicilian shore, in sight of Mount Etna Scene 2: The same Scene 3: The ships of Ulisse are seen in the distance; Ulisse disembarks with his entourage from one of the ships and is met by Aci. Scene 4: Another part of the shore with cottages belonging to fishermen. Scene 5 Scene 6: A grove _-_soprano.jpg) Act 2Scene 1 Scene 2 Scene 3 Scene 4: A view of the sea Scene 5: Aci and Galatea Scene 6: Scene 7: A grove  Act 3Scene 1: A rock near Mount Etna, at the foot of which in a shady bower where Aci and Galatea are located. Scene 2 Scene 3: Polifemo's cave Scene 4: The rock which fell upon Aci Scene 5 Scene 6 Scene 7 Roles
ReceptionMusic historian Charles Burney apparently kept a diary and captured the interest that accompanied performances of Polifemo. He also had a copy of Walsh's publication The favourite songs in the opera call'd Polypheme upon which he based his criticism of the music.[26]
Compositional featuresThe libretto of Polifemo has 21 da capo arias, 4 cavatinas and 2 ariettas.[29] It also includes two duets, one trio, and two choruses.[30] An example of how Rolli pushed the boundaries of form lies in the cavatina Placidetti zeffieretti for Galatea. Instead of a repetition of the first stanza, Rolli has a recitative between Galatea and Polifemo before commencing the second verse. Rolli has Aci also sing a cavatina, Amoretti vezzosetti which is similarly interrupted with an intervening recitative. The similarity of forms and procedure is undoubtedly intended to show the deep coupling between the two characters.[31] Another example of Rolli's daring is his taking on the liaison des scènes, a dramatic convention that disallowed the stage to be empty at any time. It was thought that having an empty stage would interrupt the action.[32] In his revision of Polifemo, Rolli has Polifemo leave the stage at the end of the penultimate scene, emphasizing the cyclops' desolation prior to the joyous final scene.[33] Rolli attempted creating a larger structure within the da capo aria tradition. Act 2, scene 4 begins with Galatea's cavatina Placidetti zeffiretti. After recitative between her and Polifemo, her lover Aci responds with the cavatina Amoretti vezzosetti. As the lines of Aci's cavatina closely resemble Galatea's with the same music, Rolli and Porpora make clear this is an expanded and modified da capo aria.[34] Of all Porpora's London operas, Polifemo has the most accompanied recitatives. Dumigan states that its use was to carefully "delineate the characters, their emotions and the inherent drama"[35] as well as "to intensify moments of action and frenzy."[36] Though the blinding of Polifemo is not explicitly shown, Ulisse narrates what he plans to do in the accompanied recitative. He goes off stage and the narrative is continued by Calipso who describes the blinding and the cyclops's subsequent rage and pain.[37] Porpora used the accompanied recitative also for expression of love, particularly in passages where Galatea expresses longing for Aci and he for her (two in act 1 and one in act 3).[38] Musicologist Michael F. Robinson states "The saving grace of the work, which might give it the chance of success in a modern production, is the strong characterization of Polyphemus..." He notes that in act 3 the cyclops kills Aci, is blinded by Ulisse, and then suffers through the transformation of Aci into a river god. Additionally, being a bass, Polyphemus provides contrast to the high voices of the women and castrato singers.[39] PublicationsPolifemo's original and revised librettos were published in Italian with English translation by Colley Cibber.[40][23][22] Seven excerpts from the opera were published in full score in The favourite songs in the opera call'd Polypheme (London: John Walsh, 1735).[41] It included the following:
Several years later (approximately 1740), Walsh reprinted the seven arias and added Fortunate pe cor che and D'un disprezzato amor for volume 2 of his compilation Le delizie dell'opere.[42] He then reprinted all nine arias in another edition of The favourite songs...[41] As of 2020 there is still neither published a complete orchestra score or a vocal score. Some editors have come out with editions of particular arias.[43] RevivalsPossibly due to the inclusion of the aria Alto Giove in the 1994 film Farinelli there has been renewed interest in Polifemo. Various arias have been recorded by Vivica Genaux, Philippe Jaroussky, Cecilia Bartoli, Franco Fagioli, and Simone Kermes. Parnassus Arts Productions staged the opera at Theater an der Wien in 2013.[44] A semi-staged production was presented at the Salzburg Festival in 2019.[45] The Opéra National du Rhin produced the first performance of this opera in France in February 2024 in Strasbourg and Mulhouse. Emmanuelle Haïm directed the music with the orchestra she founded, Le Concert d'Astrée. Franco Fagioli, Paul Antoine Benos Djian and Madison Nonoa interpreted the main roles.[46] The American premiere of Polifemo, was presented by Opera Neo in San Diego, CA. The production took place at UC San Diego Park and Market on July 19 & 20, 2024, and it was directed by Daria Zholnerova and conducted by Peter Kozma. In December 2024 the Royal Opera of Versailles staged a version of the opera.[47] References
Sources
Further reading
External links
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
