Classification term given to the first peoples who entered the American continents
This article is about Paleolithic people of the Americas. For Paleolithic people of India, see South Asian Stone Age. For other aspects of the prehistory of the Americas, see Pre-Columbian era.
Ethnic group
Paleo-Indians
Paleo-Indians hunting a glyptodont Heinrich Harder (1858–1935), c. 1920. The Paleo-Indians, also known as the Lithic peoples, are the earliest known settlers of the Americas; the period's name, the Lithic stage, derives from the appearance of lithic flaked stone tools.
Traditional theories suggest that big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from North Asia into the Americas over a land bridge (Beringia). This bridge existed from 45,000 to 12,000 BCE (47,000–14,000 BP).[1] Small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 – c. 13,500 BCE (c. 18,500 – c. 15,500 BP), ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and valleys of North America.[2] This allowed land animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the interior of the continent. The people went on foot or used boats along the coastline. The dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas remain subjects of ongoing debate.[3] It is likely there were three waves of ancient settlers from the Bering Sea to the America continent.[4]
Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Archeologists and anthropologists use surviving crafted lithic flaked tools to classify cultural periods.[5] Scientific evidence links Indigenous Americans to eastern Siberian populations by the distribution of blood types, and genetic composition as indicated by molecular data, such as DNA.[6] There is evidence for at least two separate migrations.[7]
Paleoindians lived alongside and hunted many now extinct megafauna (large animals), with most large animals across the Americas becoming extinct towards the end of the Paleoindian period as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions. The potential role of human hunting in the extinctions has been the subject of much controversy.
From 8000 to 7000 BCE (10,000–9,000 BP) the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in a more sedentary lifestyle during the following Archaic Period.
Migration into the Americas
Further information on theories of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas: Settlement of the Americas
Researchers continue to study and discuss the specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled.[9] The traditional theory holds that these early migrants moved into Beringia between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska 17,000 years ago,[10] at a time when the Quaternary glaciation significantly lowered sea levels.[11] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocenemegafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleranice sheets.[12] An alternative proposed scenario involves migration, either on foot or using boats, down the Pacific coast to South America.[13] Evidence of the latter would have been submerged by a sea-level rise of more than a hundred meters following the end of the Last Glacial Period.[14]
The time range of the peopling of the Americas remains a source of substantial debate. Conventional estimates have it that humans reached North America at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago.[15][16][17][18] However, some groups of humans may have reached South America as early as 25,000 years ago.[19] One of the few areas of agreement is the origin from Siberia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, and more specifically after the end of the Last Glacial Maximum around 16,000 to 13,000 years before present.[10][20]
Sites in Alaska (eastern Beringia) exhibit some of the earliest evidence of Paleo-Indians,[21][22][23] followed by archaeological sites in northern British Columbia, western Alberta and the Old Crow Flats region in the Yukon.[24] The Paleo-Indians would eventually flourish all over the Americas.[25] These peoples were spread over a wide geographical area; thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable.[23] This early Paleo-Indian period's lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 60 members of an extended family.[26][27] Food would have been plentiful during the few warm months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds and aquatic mammals. Nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a busy time because foodstuffs would have to be stored and clothing made ready for the winter. During the winter, coastal fishing groups moved inland to hunt and trap fresh food and furs.[28]
Late ice-age climatic changes caused plant communities and animal populations to change.[29] Groups moved and sought new supplies as preferred resources were depleted.[25] Small bands utilized hunting and gathering during the spring and summer months, then broke into smaller direct family groups for the fall and winter. Family groups moved every 3–6 days, possibly traveling up to 360 km (220 mi) per year.[30][31] Diets were often sustaining and rich in protein; clothing was made from a variety of animal hides that were also used for shelter construction.[32] During much of the early and middle Paleo-Indian periods, inland bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct megafauna.[25] Large Pleistocene mammals included the giant beaver, steppe wisent, giant muskox, mastodon, woolly mammoth and ancient reindeer.[33]
The Clovis culture, appearing around 11,500 BCE (c. 13,500 BP) in North America, is one of the most notable Paleo-Indian archaeological cultures.[34] It has been disputed whether the Clovis culture were specialist big-game hunters or employed a mixed foraging strategy that included smaller terrestrial game, aquatic animals, and a variety of flora.[35][36] Paleo-Indian groups were efficient hunters and carried a variety of tools. These included highly efficient fluted-style spear points, as well as microblades used for butchering and hide processing.[37] Projectile points and hammerstones made from many sources are found traded or moved to new locations.[38] Stone tools were traded and/or left behind from North Dakota and Northwest Territories, to Montana and Wyoming.[39] Trade routes also have been found from the British Columbia Interior to the coast of California.[39]
The glaciers that covered the northern half of the continent began to gradually melt, exposing new land for occupation around 17,500–14,500 years ago.[29] At the same time as this was occurring, worldwide extinctions among the large mammals began. In North America, camelids and equids eventually died off, the latter not to reappear on the continent until the Spanish reintroduced the horse near the end of the 15th century CE.[40] As the Quaternary extinction event was happening, the late Paleo-Indians would have relied more on other means of subsistence.[41]
From c. 10,500 – c. 9,500 BCE (c. 12,500 – c. 11,500 BP), the broad-spectrum big game hunters of the Great Plains began to focus on a single animal species: the bison (an early cousin of the American bison).[42] The earliest known of these bison-oriented hunting traditions is the Folsom tradition. Folsom peoples traveled in small family groups for most of the year, returning yearly to the same springs and other favored locations on higher ground.[43] There they would camp for a few days, perhaps erecting a temporary shelter, making and/or repairing some stone tools, or processing some meat, then moving on.[42] Paleo-Indians were not numerous, and population densities were quite low.[44]
Classification
Different types of Projectile points, from the Paleo-Indian periods in southeastern North America
Paleo-Indians are generally classified by lithic reduction or lithic core "styles" and by regional adaptations.[23][45]Lithic technology fluted spear points, like other spear points, are collectively called projectile points. The projectiles are constructed from chipped stones that have a long groove called a "flute". The spear points would typically be made by chipping a single flake from each side of the point.[46] The point was then tied onto a spear of wood or bone. As the environment changed with the ice age ending around 17–13 KaBP on short, and around 25–27 Ka BP on the long,[47] many animals migrated overland to take advantage of the new sources of food. Humans following these animals, such as bison, mammoth and mastodon, thus gained the name big-game hunters.[48] Pacific coastal groups of the period would have relied on fishing as the prime source of sustenance.[49]
Archaeologists are piecing together evidence that the earliest human settlements in North America were thousands of years before the appearance of the current Paleo-Indian time frame (before the late glacial maximum 20,000-plus years ago).[50] Evidence indicates that people were living as far east as Beringia before 30,000 BCE (32,000 BP).[51][52] Until recently, it was generally believed that the first Paleo-Indian people to arrive in North America belonged to the Clovis culture. This archaeological phase was named after the city of Clovis, New Mexico, where in 1936 unique Clovis points were found in situ at the site of Blackwater Draw, where they were directly associated with the bones of Pleistocene animals.[53]
In South America, the site of Monte Verde indicates that its population was probably territorial and resided in their river basin for most of the year. Some other South American groups, on the other hand, were highly mobile and hunted big-game animals such as gomphotheres and giant sloths. They used classic bifacial projectile point technology, such as Fishtail points.
The primary examples are populations associated with El Jobo points (Venezuela), fish-tail or Magallanes points (various parts of the continent, but mainly the southern half), and Paijan points (Peru and Ecuador) at sites in grasslands, savanna plains, and patchy forests.[66]
The dating for these sites ranges from c. 14,000 BP (for Taima-Taima in Venezuela) to c. 10,000 BP.[67] The bi-pointed El Jobo projectile points were mostly distributed in north-western Venezuela; from the Gulf of Venezuela to the high mountains and valleys. The population using them were hunter-gatherers that seemed to remain within a certain circumscribed territory.[68][69] El Jobo points were probably the earliest, going back to c. 14,200 – c. 12,980 BP and they were used for hunting large mammals.[70] In contrast, the fish-tail points, dating to c. 11,000 B.P. in Patagonia, had a much wider geographical distribution, but mostly in the central and southern part of the continent.[71][72]
Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial layover on Beringia for the founding population.[78][79][80][81] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[82] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations, however, exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations that are distinct from other Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations.[83][84][85] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[86]
Evidence from full genomic studies suggests that the first people in the Americas diverged from Ancient East Asians about 36,000 years ago and expanded northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with a different Paleolithic Siberian population (known as Ancient North Eurasians), giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas.[87][88]
Due to the evidence that Paleoindians hunted now extinct megafauna (large animals), and that following a period of overlap, most large animals across the Americas became extinct as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions, it has been argued by many authors that hunting by Paleoindians was an important factor in the extinctions,[89][90] though this suggestion is controversial, with other authors placing the blame on climatic change.[91] In a 2012 survey of archaeologists in The SAA Archaeological Record, 63% of respondents said that megafauna extinctions were likely the result of a "combination of factors".[92]
The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer, more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna.[93] The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, but now individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally. Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization like the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty, Dalton, and Plano traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, and a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables, and harvested plant foods.[31][94] Many groups continued to hunt big game but their hunting traditions became more varied and meat procurement methods more sophisticated.[29] The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site indicated social differentiation based upon status in some groups.[95]
^Paleolithic specifically refers to the period between c. 2.5 million years ago and the end of the Pleistocene in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is not used in New World archaeology.
^Viegas, Jennifer. "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover". Discovery News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2009. Archaeological evidence, in fact, recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally brokenpage 2Archived 13 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^Pitblado, B. L. (2011-03-12). "A Tale of Two Migrations: Reconciling Recent Biological and Archaeological Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas". Journal of Archaeological Research. 19 (4): 327–375. doi:10.1007/s10814-011-9049-y. S2CID144261387.
^deFrance, Susan D.; Keefer, David K.; Richardson, James B.; Alvarez, Adan U. (2010). "Late Paleo-Indian Coastal Foragers: Specialized Extractive". Latin American Antiquity. 12 (4): 413–426. doi:10.2307/972087. JSTOR972087. S2CID163802845.
^Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis (2004). "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World". World Archaeology. Vol. 34.
^Saillard, Juliette; Forster, Peter; Lynnerup, Niels; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Nørby, Søren (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
Viareggiocomune Viareggio – VedutaVeduta aerea di Viareggio LocalizzazioneStato Italia Regione Toscana Provincia Lucca AmministrazioneSindacoGiorgio Del Ghingaro (PD, lista civica) dal 14-6-2015 (2º mandato dal 22-9-2020) TerritorioCoordinate43°52′02.06″N 10°15′02.18″E / 43.867239°N 10.250606°E43.867239; 10.250606 (Viareggio)Coordinate: 43°52′02.06″N 10°15′02.18″E / 43.867239°N 10.250606°E43.867239; 10…
Irish politician and soldier (1854–1939) Maurice George MooreSenatorIn office27 April 1938 – 8 September 1939ConstituencyNominated by the TaoiseachSenatorIn office11 December 1922 – 29 May 1936 Personal detailsBorn(1854-08-10)10 August 1854Moore Hall, County MayoDied8 September 1939(1939-09-08) (aged 85)Dublin, IrelandPolitical partyFianna FáilIndependentSpouse Evelyn Handcock (m. 1889)Children2ParentGeorge Henry Moore (father)Relative…
Scottish footballer For other people named John Harris, see John Harris (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: John Harris footballer, born 1917 – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) John Harris Harris in a Chels…
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Valdés. Juan de ValdésBiographieNaissance 1505CuencaDécès 1541, mai 1541 ou juillet 1541NaplesFormation Université d'AlcaláActivités Théologien, écrivainFratrie Alfonso de Valdésmodifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata Juan de Valdés, né en 1499 à Cuenca et mort à Naples en 1541, est un érudit et humaniste espagnol. Il fut l’un des principaux propagateurs des idées de l'Érasmisme en Espagne. Il a fui devant l’Inquisition espagnole et …
Heritage-listed bridge in Sydney, Australia This article is about the bridge in Parramatta, Sydney, in New South Wales, Australia. For the bridge in Glenbrook in the lower Blue Mountains, New South Wales, see Lennox Bridge, Glenbrook. Lennox BridgeThe Lennox Bridge in Parramatta, from the west.Coordinates33°48′39″S 151°00′16″E / 33.810719°S 151.004548°E / -33.810719; 151.004548CarriesChurch Street, Parramatta PedestriansLight Rail (In Construction, Operating f…
American football player and coach (1913–2002) Bob BreitensteinBreitenstein pictured in The Rhododendron 1962, Appalachian State yearbookBiographical detailsBorn(1913-07-24)July 24, 1913Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.DiedMarch 28, 2002(2002-03-28) (aged 88)Boone, North Carolina, U.S.Playing career1935–1936Miami (OH) Position(s)HalfbackCoaching career (HC unless noted)1946–1948Shaker Heights HS (OH)1949–1955Miami (FL) (backfield)1957–1958Appalachian State (assistant)1959Appalachian State196…
François Ier de NeversFrançois I de Clèves (François Clouet).Titre de noblesseDucBiographieNaissance 2 septembre 1516Décès 13 février 1561 ou 13 février 1562NeversActivité MilitaireFamille Maison de La MarckPère Charles de Clèves (en)Mère Marie d'AlbretConjoints Marguerite de Bourbon-Vendôme (à partir de 1538)Marie II de Saint-PolEnfants François II de NeversHenriette de NeversJacques de ClèvesCatherine de ClèvesMarie de ClèvesHenri de Nevers (d)Autres informatio…
Внутрибуквенный просвет буквы «p» показана красным цветом Внутрибуквенный просвет — область буквы, которая полностью или частично ограничена формой буквы или символа.[1][2] Буквы латинского алфавита, содержащие закрытые внутрибуквенные просветы: A, B, D, O, P, Q, R, a, b…
دوقيةدوق ودوقا من سكونامعلومات عامةصنف فرعي من دولةملكية منصب رأس الدولة دوق تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بيانات الدوقية إما أن تكون أراضي أو إقطاعية أو منطقة نفوذ يحكمها دوق أو دوقة .[1] تاريخياً كان بعض دوقات أوروبا بمثابة الملوك بينما آخرون (خصوصاً في (فرنسا وبريطان…
Nonprofit organization This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) YWCA USAFoundedFebruary 10, 1858Founded atNew York CityPurposeAdvocacy for young women’s leadership, peace, justice, human rights and sustainable developmentHeadquartersWashington, D.C…
Historical East Germanic ethnic group This article is about the Germanic tribe that lived during the Roman era. For the royal dynasty, see House of Burgundy. For the political group during the Hundred Years War, see Burgundian (party). The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing a possible location of the Burgundiones Germanic group, inhabiting the region between the Viadua (Oder) and Visula (Vistula) rivers (Poland) The Burgundians (Latin: Burgundes, Burgundiōnes, Burgundī; O…
Russian rapper (born 1986) This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: ST1M – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) ST1MBackground …
La bandiera arcobaleno adattata alla Romania I diritti delle persone lesbiche, gay, bisessuali e transgender (LGBT) in Romania non sono gli stessi delle persone eterosessuali. La Romania è generalmente socialmente conservatrice per quanto riguarda i diritti dei cittadini gay, lesbiche, bisessuali e transessuali. Per questo l'omosessualità è ancora stigmatizzata all'interno della società. Nonostante questo, il paese ha compiuto progressi significativi nella legislazione in materia di diritti …
Royal Navy admiral and Nazi sympathiser SirBarry DomvileBorn5 September 1878 (1878-09-05)Died13 August 1971 (1971-08-14) (aged 92)Allegiance United KingdomService/branch Royal NavyRankAdmiralCommands heldHMS MirandaHMS TipperaryHMS CentaurHMS CuracoaHMS Royal SovereignRoyal Naval College, GreenwichBattles/warsWorld War IAwardsKnight Commander of the Order of the British EmpireCompanion of the Order of the BathCompanion of the Order of St Michael and St George Admiral Sir…
Мапа Ісландії Це список островів, що входять до Республіки Ісландії. Айдей Б'ярнарей Віґур Відей Гвалбакур Геймаей Гетлісей Грісей Ґейрфуґласкер Ґрімсей Дранґей Елдей Енґей Етлідаей Йолнір Колбейнсей Лундей Малмей Папей Флатей у Брейдаф'єрдурі Флатей у Ск'ялфанді Алсей (…
Beragam masakan Minang yang disajikan di Rumah Makan Padang. Artikel ini merupakan bagian dari seriHidangan Indonesia Hidangan nasional Gado-gado Nasi goreng Rendang Sate Soto Tumpeng Masakan daerah dan budaya Aceh Arab Bali Banjar Batak Gorontalo Betawi Tionghoa India Indo Jawa Madura Makassar Melayu Minahasa Minangkabau Palembang Peranakan Sunda Maluku Papua Bahan Bumbu Penyedap Bumbu kacang Sambal Santan Jenis makanan Makanan Masakan Mi Sup Hidangan penutup Makanan ringan Kue Kerupuk Keripik …
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang monarki Saint Lucia. Untuk informasi tentang negara lainnya yang berbagi orang yang sama sebagai penguasa monarki, lihat Wilayah Persemakmuran. Raja Saint LuciaKing of Saint Luciacode: en is deprecated (Inggris)Sedang berkuasaCharles IIIsejak 8 September 2022 PerincianPewarisWilliam, Pangeran WalesPenguasa pertamaElizabeth IIPembentukan22 Februari 1979 Templat:Politik Saint Lucia Monarki Saint Lucia adalah sebuah sistem pemerintahan dimana peng…
Tartignycomune Tartigny – Veduta LocalizzazioneStato Francia RegioneAlta Francia Dipartimento Oise ArrondissementClermont CantoneSaint-Just-en-Chaussée TerritorioCoordinate49°38′N 2°21′E49°38′N, 2°21′E (Tartigny) Altitudine105 m s.l.m. Superficie6,97 km² Abitanti258[1] (2009) Densità37,02 ab./km² Altre informazioniCod. postale60120 Fuso orarioUTC+1 Codice INSEE60627 CartografiaTartigny Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Tartigny è un co…