Mav̋ea language
Mavea (also rendered Mav̋ea, Mafea or Mavia) is an Oceanic language spoken on Mavea Island in Vanuatu, off the eastern coast of Espiritu Santo. It belongs to the North–Central Vanuatu linkage of Southern Oceanic. The total population of the island is approximately 172, with only 34 fluent speakers of the Mavea language reported in 2008.[1] There are 94 languages in the North Vanuatu linkage, including Mavea. The closest linguistic relative to Mavea, sharing a little over 70% of cognates, is Tutuba. Following Tutuba, Aore, South Malok, Araki, and Tangoa are the next closest relatives.[2] Language endangermentMavea is a moribund language and there are many factors as to why this is. One factor would be the arrival and Christianization by the Seventh-day Adventist and Church of Christ missionaries in 1839. Only 16% of the population can speak Mavea. These native speakers of Mavea belong to Generation 1, 2, and 3[further explanation needed] which ranges from the ages of 20–80 years old. Those born after 1980 ("Generation 4") are less fluent. Commonly, this generation is not taught the language, because the language is inactive and not used in any new domain.[2] Mavea is not used very commonly outside of the home; in particular, it is not used in school, which reduces the younger speakers' exposure to the language. Most speakers do not feel concerned with the possible loss of the Mavea language.[2] Bislama, the national lingua franca of Vanuatu, is used more frequently. This creole is the first language for many people in Vanuatu who live in the city. It is used for business, religious sacraments, politics, and is seen as a way to move upward in society.[2] PhonologyMavea has 15 consonants and 8 vowels.[2]
Plosives in Mavea are not aspirated.[4]
OrthographyLinguolabial consonants are represented using the corresponding labial consonant with a double acute accent on top: p̋ [t̼]; v̋ [ð̼]; m̋ [n̼].[2] (This is a slight variation compared with the convention, shared by other Vanuatu languages, of transcribing linguolabials using two dots, respectively as p̈; v̈; m̈.) The retroflex [ɖ] is represented in the orthography as d. GrammarPronounsThere are both free and bound pronouns. Free pronouns are common in many Pacific languages. These free pronouns do not change for gender, but shows numerical differences, including singular, plural, dual, or paucal.[2] For example:
Proper nounsProper nouns includes personal names, vocatives, relational terms, and locatives. They do not proceed an article and can not be used with a determiner. To show gender distinction, males use the prefix /mol-/. For females, the prefix /vo-/ or /va-/ was added.[2] Common nounsSimilar to the proper nouns, there are both bound and free common nouns. Both can be used in an argument, be quantified with a marker, be modified with a determiner, be the head of a relative clause, and be questioned with "who" or "what". Bound common nouns are separated into nouns of kinship, body parts, bodily functions, and whole part relations. Also shows possessives.[2] VerbsVerbal predicates are marked with a subject agreement prefix. There are intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, ambitransitive, ditransitive, and auxiliary. Intransitive verbs are used when the subject has no direct object receiving the action.[2] AdverbsThere are two kinds of adverbs: phrasal adverbs and sentential adverbs. Sententail adverbs take up the entire sentence and appear after or before the verb's core argument. For example: to show frequency, /te pong/ meaning "sometimes" is used as a sentential adverb. Spatial adverbs are used to show the location of the speaker and the direction the speaker is speaking towards. For example: konaro means "here, at speaker's location." This is common in many Pacific languages.[2] ReduplicationMavea shows partial reduplication in its grammar. Reduplication is used to show emphasis. For example: sua means "to paddle" and suosua means "to paddle intensely". Sometimes when using reduplication, the vowels can change. Usually the "a" changes to "o" or "e".[2] AdjectivesAdjectives can only be used as noun modifiers. There both adjectives as independent lexical items and also adjectives pulled from transitive verbs by using reduplication. For example: pulua is "paint" and "ima pulpulu" means "painted house".[2] PrepositionsThere are seven prepositions in Mavea.
DemonstrativesPronounsThere are four attested demonstrative pronouns in Mavea: aro, nel(e), maro, and male.[5] Aro and nel(e) can also function as demonstrative determiners, and aro specifically only rarely appears as a pronoun,[5] as in: Mo-ṽe 3SG-make mo-pal 3SG-like aro here [ma COMP mo-pailu] 3SG-bent 'He makes (it) like this one here that is bent'[5] Maro ('this one') is used to refer to something nearby the speaker, and has the plural form maror,[5] which is formed by affixing the plural suffix -re:[6] Or maybe me FUT ro then ka-var 1SG.IRR-talk sur about maro this.one ma COMP matua=ku right=1SG.POSS mo-adia 3SG-first 'Maybe I will talk about this one that (is) on my right first'[6] Ma COMP pula-ira CLF-3PL maror these.ones i LIG ṽat. four '(The ones) that (are) theirs (are) these four ones.'[6] Male ('that one') on the other hand is used when speaking of something that is distant to the speaker,[5] both literally, as in Male that.one m̃atan COMP me FUT ra-lsu 3PL-hit mate=i=o dead=TR=2SG 'That one (was) for the purpose that they would kill you'[7] And metaphorically, in order to distance the speaker from the referent,[6] as in Na but vatavata woman le DET mo-pelmel 3SG-like.this paingur, stubborn male that.one me FUT i-l-ṽe 3SG.IRR-IMPF-make Tomy Tomy pelmel like.this 'But this woman is stubborn like this, that one will be making Tomy the same'[6] Malere is the plural form of male,[5] and like maror is formed by affixing the plural -re:[6] Maro and male are both formed by combining the complementizer ma- and a locative adverbial; aro for the former, and ale for the latter.[6] DeterminersIn addition to demonstrative pronouns, Mavea also has three demonstrative determiners: nele, (a)ro, and nor(o),[8] although of these only nor(o) is not attested as a pronoun in addition to its role as a demonstrative determiner.[5]
The three-way demonstrative system common to Oceanic Languages[9] is not present in Mavean demonstrative determiners,[8] occurring instead in the locative adverbs of the language.[10] The demonstrative determiners of Mavea encode both spatial and temporal proximity to either the speaker,[8] as in or to the discourse, as in Rau=n leaves=3SG.POSS mo-sa 3SG-go.up mo-avtai 3SG-appear nor here.now aulu. above 'Its leaves go up and appear here on top.'[11] The plural forms neler(e), ror, and noror are formed by affixing what is likely a reduced form of the plural word re.[11] Nele, along with its plural form neler(e), is formed in part by the specific definite article le.[11] Nor(o), and its plural form noror, is actually made up in part by a cut down form of the third demonstrative determiner, (a)ro, while nele is not.[11] Interestingly, the two demonstrative determiners which contain aro, that is nor(o) and (a)ro itself, are also the two demonstrative determiners which serve double duty as demonstrative pronouns,[5] in addition to being used as locational adverbs, a function never assigned to nel(e)(re).[11] Additionally, one of the other demonstrative pronouns, maro, also has aro as one of its constituents.[6] Demonstrative determiners can refer to a location in both time and space, but the spatial location is often discourse-related, rather than speaker-related,[11] as in the following example, where aro is used to refer anaphorically to a party (anana) that has previously been mentioned in the text: Re PL m̃asi bird.fish nirev everyone ra-ṽa 3PL-go na LOC anan-a eat-NMZ aro. here 'All the birds went to this party.'[12] This use is sometimes called the "tracking use".[11] Ror, nor(o)(r), and nelere all also have anaphoric uses, as displayed in the following examples, where the noun phrase referents occurring prior to the demonstrative have each been mentioned previously:[12] Ro then me FUT ro then tamlese old ror here.PL i LIG rua… two 'Then, these two men here…' Ra-l-an 3PL-IMPF-eat ineler thing.PL nelere these.PL 'They are eating these things here.' Inor thing.PL nor here.now me FUT i-tuen 3SG.IRR-help nno 2SG 'These things here will help you.' The demonstrative determiners of Mavea follow the head noun when used adnominally, a pattern which is the norm in oceanic languages, though by no means universal.[9] Examples of this include: Tam̃a-n father-CONS navaisesea child aro this.here mo-m̃ata. 3SG-dead 'The father of this child here is dead.'[11] Spatial deicticsLocative adverbsLocative adverbs are a class of sentential adverb, modifying entire sentences, and as such occur either subsequent to the verb's core argument,[13] as shown in: Ra-kuro 3PL-leave koneine there 'Ai ai sar' sar ro then ra-sa 3PL-go.up konain there 'Panpan.' panpan 'They left there, 'Ai sar', then they went up there, 'Panpan'.[10] Or more rarely prior to the verb's core argument, as shown in: There are two sets of locative adverbs in Mavea,[13] all members of which serve as spatial deictics. There is the A-set, so named because all of its members begin with [a], and the K-set, so named because each of its members begins with [ko]. They form a six-way system based on proximity to the hearer, and to the speaker, as well as relative direction (up, down, or across)[13]
Atisi(vo), atisa, and atiṽa, as well as their K-set equivalents konatisi(vo), konatisa, and konatiṽa, are likely derived from the form atu (or konatu for the K-set), compounded with a movement verb like si(vo) ('go down'), sa ('go up'), or ṽa ('go'):[10] Nno 2SG ko-to 2SG-stay aro here nao 1SG ka-on 1SG.IRR-look ka-ṽa 1SG.IRR-go konatiṽa. over.there Ka-val 1SG.IRR-pass kil look ṽa go na LOC vovono REDbush konatu. over.there 'You stay here, I will go look over there. I will pass towards the bush over there.' Ra-kuro 3PL-leave koneine there 'Ai ai sar' sar ro then ra-sa 3PL-go.up konain there 'Panpan.' panpan 'They left there, 'Ai sar', then they went up there, 'Panpan'.' 'Soon after I felt something touching my leg here.' Speakers can emphasise the distance in the forms atisi(vo), atisa, and atiṽa, as well as their K-set forms konatisi(vo), konatisa, and konatiṽa by producing them with a long [t], e.g.: [a.'t:i.si].[10] There is no easily discernible semantic difference between the A-set and the K-set, however some members of the A-set may also serve as demonstratives,[15] as in: Mo-ṽe 3SG-make mo-pal 3SG-like aro here [ma COMP mo-pailu]. 3SG-bent 'He makes (it) like (this one) here which is bent.' which is not attested in any member of the K-set. The spatial and temporal adverbs aro, aine, and kon(a)ro, as well as the demonstrative determiner nor(o), can be juxtaposed with a noun in order to form an adverbial predicate,[7] as in Ro, then avona-n end-CONS ululdunia story aro. here.this 'Then the end of the story (is) here.' Or 'Then, this (is) the end of the story.' Nna 3SG ne FOC aine. there 'It (is) there.' 'The third one (is) here, the fourth one (is) here.' MorphologyPersonal pronouns in Mavea do not inflect for case or gender, but do show number (singular, dual, paucal, plural). First person non-singular has an inclusive/exclusive distinction. Independent personal pronouns are not obligatory, but are used for emphasis, contrast or focus.[16]
me FUT ro then nno 2SG me FUT ko 2SG -l -IMPF -suruv -sleep atano, ground na but nao 1SG me FUT ro then ka 1SG.IRR suruv -sleep aul above pere branch -n -CONS vuae tree "You, you will sleep on the ground, but I, I will sleep in the tree" Bound pronounsBound pronouns are obligatory at the beginning of a predicate phrase. Only 1SG and 3SG inflect for mood.[17]
Counting systemThe Mavea counting system is very similar to other Proto Oceanic languages, especially numbers 1 through 5, and 10.[2]
PossessionMavea distinguishes direct and indirect possession. Direct possessive constructions nouns take a bound possessive clitic. On the other hand, indirect possession is expressed by the presence of a classifier to which a possessive clitic is suffixed.[20] Direct possessionDirect possession is expressed by a possessive clitic attached to the noun when the possessor is not expressed as a Noun Phrase (NP). Alternatively, if no suffix exists for the person and number of the possessor, the nouns are followed by an independent pronoun.[20] The semantic classes of nouns participating in direct possessive constructions, include, body parts, and bodily functions, kinship terms, articles of clothing, and household goods.[20]
A noun, which is directly possessed, takes a possessive clitic matching the possessor's features.[21] For example: Ka-deo 1SG.IRR-defecate mo-adia 3SG-first ro then me FUT ko-on 2SG-look tae=ku. excrement=lSG.POSS 'I will defecate first, then you will look at my excrement.' and This third person singular possessive clitic, pronounced as [na], is suffixed to the noun 'Laloa' for 'saliva'. Non-pronominal possessorsIf a full NP expresses the possessor, the possessee takes the construct suffix –n, or can be pronounces [na], although this construct suffix is a homophony of the possessive clitic –n and –na the distribution is different as displayed in the following examples;[21] Note that the case of Full NP, the possessee precedes the possessor and Natu-n child-CONS vomae dove mo-sa 3SG-go.up mo-sakel 3SG-sit na LOC patu-n head-CONS kou. fowl 'Dove's child went up and sat on Fowl's head.[22] Possession is recursive, in the following example, the noun 'vulu' which is possessed by the noun 'vanatu' which in turn is possessed by John, therefore both nouns a suffixed with –[n]. Indirect possessionNouns in indirect possession constructions do not take a possessive clitic, they require a classifier to which a possessive clitic (or construct suffix) is attached.[21] There are six classifiers in Mavea:
classifier "a-" infers that the item is possessed is meant to be eaten If the possessor is a full NP, the classifier is market with the construct -n Nira 3pl ra-ve 3PL-make inanan food vaisesea small a-n CLF.eat-CONS re PL famli. family 'They make a small party for the families (to eat)'[24] Summarised
QuestionsIntonation is used to distinguish yes–no questions because there is no syntactic way to do so. There are also tag questions which uses the negative tag /te modere/ at the end. In English, /te modere/ means "or not".[2] Some monoclausal content questions include:
NegationSentential negation is expressed with the bound prefix /sopo/ and appears right after the subject agreement prefix.[2] The order is subject → negation → verb. mo 3SG -sopo- NEG rongo see = = a 3SG he didn't see him Sometimes /sopo/ can be shorten to /po/. na 1SG -po- NEG sasa work I don't work. When the subject agreement marker is absent, the bare negation marker jumps to the front. Sopo NEG te some ta-mavea... from-Mav̋ea There is not one Mav̋ea man... To show the aspectual meaning "not yet", /lo/ is added to the negation marker /sopo/. This refers to events that have not happened yet but are likely to in the future. Added to the end of this form of negation is /pa/ which means "still" or "yet". nno ko 2SG sopo NEG -l- IMPF on look diu crab pa? yet? you haven't seen a coconut crab yet? When combined with /me/ the negation changes into "not anymore, no more". mo-sopo 3SG-NEG - - me IT - - l IMPF - - suruv sleep She does not sleep anymore. Equative clauses are shown by adding the negative marker /sopo/ to the subject marker for third person singular /mo-/. Mosopo meaning " it is/was/not." Ko-v 2SG-say mo-sopo 3SG-NEG nno. 2SG You said it wasn't you. Negative locational predicates are similar to equative clauses, by adding the locational marker /na/ to the equative clause /mosopo/. Mo-sopo 3SG-NEG na LOC ono. sand. It is not on the sand. References
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