This is a list of present-day cities by the time period over which they have been continuously inhabited as a city. The age claims listed are generally disputed. Differences in opinion can result from different definitions of "city" as well as "continuous habitation" and historical evidence is often disputed. Caveats (and sources) to the validity of each claim are discussed in the "Notes" column.
Founded in the 11th century, Agadez was an important stop for caravans crossing the Saharan Desert for centuries. Agadez was captured by the Songhai empire in 1515, and controlled by Bornu in the 17th century.[16]
The foundation for the construction of Kano City Walls was laid by Sakri Gijimasu at some point between 1095 and 1134, and was completed in the middle of the 14th century during the reign of Usman Zamnagawa.[17]
Settled by Tuareg traders as an outpost, its incorporation into the Mali Empire and Songhai, Mande, and Soninke settlement from the 13th century rapidly developed the town.[18]
The primary port of the Kingdom of Whydah, originally called Glehue by the Fon inhabitants. The town was conquered by the Kingdom of Dahomey in the 18th century.[21]
Pre-Columbian Cholula grew from a small village to a regional center during the 7th century. The city was the site of the Massacre of Cholula during the military campaign of Hernán Cortés.
Formerly Nojpetén, the capital of the Itza kingdom, it has been occupied continuously since prehispanic times.[27] Earliest archaeological traces date back to 900–600 BC, with major expansion of the settlement occurring around 250–400 AD.[28] Ethnohistoric documents claim the founding of Nojpetén in the mid-15th century AD.[29]
Also known as the Yellow City. Small city in the Mexican state of Yucatán, 72 kilometres east of state capital Mérida. Izamal is an important archaeological site of the Pre-ColumbianMaya civilization. Continuously occupied until the Spanish Conquest. The most important pre-Hispanic constructive activity occurred during the early and late classical periods. It was partially abandoned with the rise of a group that hailed from Chichen Itza, probably around the final classical period (800–1000AD).
The valley of modern Oaxaca City, founded by the Spanish in 1532, has been continuously inhabited by the Oto-Manguean peoples of Mesoamerica since ancient times. The outskirts of Oaxaca City host the ruins of Monte Albán, once the capital of the Zapotecs for around 1000 years. Although Monte Albán proper was abandoned around 1000 AD, the city of Zaachila next to it rose in its place and was continuously inhabited until the arrival of Europeans.
The town of Papantla in the state of Veracruz was founded by the Totonac people around the 13th century AD.[37] The neighboring monumental city of El Tajín was settled around the 1st century AD[38][36] until it was destroyed around the same time Papantla was founded.[36][37]
Founded by the Nahuatl-speaking people of the Valley of Mexico with the name Cuauhnahuac. The ruins of Teopanzolco, now in downtown Cuernavaca, are thought to be the downtown of Cuauhnahuac, which was sieged and occupied by the Spanish in 1521, who renamed it to Cuernavaca.
Founded as twin cities Tenōchtitlān (1325) and Tlāltelōlco (1337) by the Mexica. Name changed to Ciudad de México (Mexico City) after the Spanish conquest of the city in 1521. Several other pre-Columbian towns such as Azcapotzalco, Tlatelolco, Xochimilco and Coyoacán have been engulfed by the still growing metropolis and are now part of modern Mexico City. Oldest capital city in the Americas.
Oldest major city in Cuba, established 1515, granted city status in 1592 by Philip II of Spain as "Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies".
The actual location of the settlement known as Veracruz changed multiple times. Originally established by Hernán Cortés in April 1519 – near where he made landfall[a] – as the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz,[b] it was moved within a month to Totonac Quiahuiztlan. This location lay further inland and required a long overland trek from the port at San Juan de Ulúa to unload cargo, due to which the settlement was again moved in 1525, this time to the present-day location of La Antigua. Veracruz remained there until 1599, when pressure from mercantile elites in Seville, Mexico City, and Puebla de los Ángeles to relocate the settlement closer to the port to speed and secure trade caused it to be refounded at its present location as Nuevo Veracruz.[43]
Founded as Bermuda City in 1613 and later known as City Point, Virginia, this location has undergone several name changes but has remained continuously inhabited.
Followed by Jersey City, New Jersey (Communipaw) in 1617 and New York City (as New Amsterdam) in 1624. (Note: While there was an abandonment in 1617 or 1618 of the Albany settlement, it was re-established within a few years; also, the Jersey City settlement was a factorij or trading post in the 1610s and did not become a "homestead" (bouwerij) until the 1630s. Settlements in New Netherlands sometimes moved around in the early years.)
Founded in 1624 as New Amsterdam. Was renamed New York City in 1667. Is the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States[59]
Oldest continuously inhabited settlement incorporated as a Town in North America. Initial settlement was 1605, with confirmed continuous settlement since at least 1629.
A single settlement until 1817, when it was divided into Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, United States. The latter is the oldest European-founded city in the Midwestern United States and third-oldest US city west of the Appalachian Mountains.
In 1681, King Charles II gave William Penn a large piece of his newly acquired American land holdings to repay a debt the king owed to Admiral Sir William Penn, Penn's father. Afterwards, Penn founded Philadelphia with a core group of accompanying Quakers and others seeking religious freedom on lands he purchased from the local chieftains of the Lenape or Delaware nation.[62]
Natchitoches was established in 1714 by French explorer Louis Juchereau de St. Denis. It is the oldest permanent European settlement within the borders of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.[63] Natchitoches was founded as a French outpost on the Red River for trade with Spanish-controlled Mexico; French traders settled there as early as 1699.
Founded as a Spanish mission and colonial outpost in 1718, the city in 1731 became the first chartered civil settlement in what is now present-day Texas.
Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville in 1718 upon the slightly elevated banks of the Mississippi River approximately 95 miles (153 km) above its mouth.[citation needed]
The Killke occupied the region from 900 to 1200, prior to the arrival of the Incas in the 13th century. Carbon-14 dating of Sacsayhuamán, the walled complex outside Cusco, has demonstrated that the Killke culture constructed the fortress about 1100.[64]
On 25 July 1536 Belalcázar founded Santiago de Cali, first established a few kilometres north of the present location, near what are now the towns of Vijes and Riofrío.
Juan de Salazar y Espinoza, traversing the Paraguay River on his way from Buenos Aires, stopped briefly at a bay in the left bank to resupply his ships. He found the natives friendly, and decided to found a fort there in August 1537. He named it Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción (Our Lady Saint Mary of the Assumption – the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on August 15).
Inhabited since Neolithic times, it has been closely linked to the legends and history of the Mediterranean region for thousands of years. Byblos is also directly associated with the history and diffusion of the Phoenician alphabet.
The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BC), which refer to a city called rwš3lmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum/Urušalimum/Rôsh-ramen[78][79] and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BC) may be the earliest mention of the city.[80][81] Nadav Na'aman argues its fortification as the centre of a kingdom dates to around the 18th century BC.[82]
Jenin's history goes back to 2450 BC, when it was built by the Canaanites. After 1244, Jenin flourished economically because of its location on the trade route, until a major earthquake completely destroyed the city.
The Citadel of Erbil is a fortified settlement in Erbil, Iraq. The city corresponds to the ancient Assyrian city of Arbela. Settlement at Erbil can be dated back to possibly 6000 BC, but not urban life until c. 2300.[85][86]
The city was founded by the Phrygians in at least 1000 BC, although it has been estimated to be older than 4,000 years old. Many Phrygian artifacts and sculptures can still be found in the city's archeological museum.
Traces of habitation from 9000 BC.[99][100] Fortifications date to 6800 BC (or earlier), making Jericho the earliest known walled city.[101]
Archaeological evidence indicates that the city was destroyed and abandoned several times (sometimes remaining uninhabited for hundreds of years at a time), with later rebuilding and expansion.[102][103]
An important and prosperous city along the silk road, it was made the capital city several times during various periods under various ruling dynasties of the region.
Perhaps the oldest city in Central and South Asia. Also known as Mulasthana or Kashyapapura, this city was founded by Kashyapa, according to Hindu Puranas.[115] The region is home to numerous archaeological sites dating to the era of the Early Harappan period of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
It was considered a major stop on the Silk Road as well as the birthplace of Zoroastrianism and was a major hub for Buddhism. Arab conquerors have called it Umm-al-belad, mother of cities.
Oldest continuously inhabited city in Kazakhstan. The city of Sayram is believed by some historians to have been mentioned in the Avesta, with Sairima possibly meaning Sayram. Evidence of an early plumbing system has been found around Sayram and Transoxiana.
Bronze Age burials were discovered dating from the end of the second to the beginning of the first millennium BC. Achaemenid dishes and ceramics were found 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) east of Dushanbe in Qiblai, as the city was controlled by the Achaemenids from the sixth century BC.[126]
Carbon dating evidences of artefacts found at Vaigai Civilisation are found to be from 3rd century BC[133]Megasthenes may have visited Madurai during the 3rd century BC, with the city referred as "Methora" in his accounts.[134] The view is contested by some scholars who believe "Methora" refers to the north Indian city of Mathura, as it was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire.[135]
The Ambari excavations trace the time period of the city of Guwahati between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE, in the Shunga-Kushana period of Indian history.[136]
The origin of Lahore can be traced back somewhere between 1st and 7th centuries A.D.[137] One of the oldest cities of South Asia. The first document that mentions Lahore by name is the Hudud al-'Alam ("The Regions of the World"), written by an unknown author in 982 AD.
Some traditional Chinese histories placed Nanwucheng's founding during the reign of Ji Yan,[146][147]king of Zhou from 314 to 256 BC. It was said to have consisted of little more than a stockade of bamboo and mud.[148][147]
It was inhabited as early at the 6th–5th centuries BC, and became a port city during the Kofun period. It temporarily served as the capital of Japan from 645 to 655.
In 257 BC, after defeating the last Hùng king, An Dương Vương merged Văn Lang and Nam Cương in to Âu Lạc and set the capital at Cổ Loa citadel, nowadays Đông Anh district of Hanoi. It was also mentioned as Tống Bình in 454 AD and the Đại La citadel was built in 767 during the reign of Emperor Daizong of Tang. Ly Cong Uan then renamed it Thăng Long in 1010.
Huế was built under the name Kandarpapura and used for about 1 century from the beginning of the 4th century to the end of the 4th century (after 380) during the period when Hinayana Buddhism (Thevarada) and Hinduism heavily influenced Lâm Ấp.[150][151]
Much debate surrounds the construction of Sri Ksetra. Htin Aung suggests that Pyu might have been founded in 78 CE, based on the Sanskrit / Pyu Era. D. G. E. Hall and Gordon Luce, however, claim that civilisation of the Irrawaddy Valley could not have been possible before the 4th century, thus, attributing the founding of Sri Ksetra to 638, from which the current Burmese Kawza Era begins.
The historic realm of Mataram of Southern Central Java region, which corresponds to today Yogyakarta city and its surrounding has its root in 8th century Mataram Kingdom. According to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as "Mataram" became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya.[153] The city reestablished again as the capital of Mataram Sultanate in 1587, and Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1755.
According to Dinoyo inscription, Malang in the past known as Kanjuruhan kingdom and badut temple dated 740 AD but the city itself established older than the temple and inscription. Today Malang Raya or Malang city is the 2nd largest city and metro area in east Java.
An inscription was found at Wat Sema Muang that bore: The king of Srivijaya "had established a foothold on the Malay Peninsula at Ligor" by 775, where he "built various edifices, including a sanctuary dedicated to the Buddha and to the BodhisattvasPadmapani and Vajrapani."[154]: 84–85, 91
After reunifying Vietnam and ending the anarchy of the 12 warlords, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was crowned Emperor of Đại Cồ Việt and set the capital at Hoa Lư, Ninh Bình. The city lies in a mountainous area and had a defensive position that contributed to the victory of Đại Cồ Việt against the Song dynasty of China.
Along with changes in name, it is essentially a union of the two capitals of Panjalu Kingdom and Janggala Kingdom. The settlements are always interspersed along both banks of Brantas River. Administratively, the Government of Indonesia divides Kediri into two political entities, Kediri Regency and the Town of Kediri which is located in the middle of the regency. Nevertheless, archaeological remains exist beyond administrative boundaries and settlements often spread disregarding administrative boundaries between both entities.
The port city of Janggala or Hujung Galuh was one of the two Javanese capital city that was formed when Airlangga abdicated his throne in 1045 in favour of his two sons.[162]: 147 The Kingdom of Janggala comprised the northeastern part of the Kingdom of Kahuripan. The other Kingdom was Kediri. Derived its name from the words "suro" (shark) and "boyo" (crocodile), two creatures which are in a local myth.[163]
Ancient city founded by Sri Rajahmura Lumaya or Sri Lumay, a half Tamil Chola prince.[167] Now part of Barangay Mabolo in Northern district of Cebu City.[165][166]
A settlement in the Manila area already existed by the year 1258. This settlement was ruled by Rajah Avirjirkaya whom described as a "Majapahit Suzerain". This settlement was attacked by a Bruneian commander named Rajah Ahmad, who defeated Avirjirkaya and established Manila as a "Muslim principality".[168] By 1570, when the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, arrived, it was still inhabited and led by at least one Lakan and several Rajahs.
Sagaing was the capital of Sagaing Kingdom (1315-1364), one of the minor kingdoms that rose up after the fall of Pagan dynasty, where one of Thihathu's sons, Athinkhaya, established himself.[154]: 227
The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, when it was a village on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River, under the rule of Ayutthaya.[176]
Continuously inhabited since the Early Bronze Age,[190] an urban settlement called Skodra was founded by Illyrians in the 4th century BC and fortified in moenia aeacia style,[191][192] it became the capital of the Illyrian kingdom under the Ardiaei and Labeatae and was one of the most important cities of the Balkans in ancient times.[193]
According to Leonardo A. Chisena, the area was first settled in the Palaeolithic (10th millennium BC).[198][verification needed] According to Anne Parmly Toxey, Matera has been "occupied continuously for at least three millennia".[197]
The traditional founding date is 753 BC. Archaeology shows that the site has been inhabited since c. 1200 – c. 1000 BC, with urbanisation beginning around the mid-eighth century BC.[209]
Built at the foot of Mount Etna, the city has a seismic history and it was destroyed several times by earthquakes or by eruptions and lava flows; but every time it was rebuilt again. For this reason, Catania adopted the symbol of the Phoenix and the LatinmottoMelior de cinere surgo (I rise from my ashes in a better state than before).
Actually the date at which an older settlement close by, called Parthenope, was founded by settlers from Cumae. This eventually merged with Neapolis proper, which was founded c. 470 BC.
Founded by Milesian colonists around 610 BC, was named Apollonia Pontica in honour of the patron deity of Miletus – Apollo. The Ancient authors identify the philosopher named Anaximander as the founder of the city.
Originally a Thracian settlement, known as Mesembria, the town became a Greek colony when settled by Dorians from Megara at the beginning of the 6th century BC, then known as Mesembria. It was an important trading centre from then on and a rival of Apollonia (Sozopol). It remained the only Dorian colony along the Black Sea coast, as the rest were typical Ionian colonies. At 425–424BC the town joined the Delian League, under the leadership of Athens.[230]
Founded as the Greek colony of Callatis by the city of Heraclea Pontica. The Greek colony was likely developed on the site of an earlier Getic settlement named Acervetis or Carbatis.[233]
It was called Beroe in ancient times and was founded by Philip II of Macedon[243][245][246][244] although a Thracian settlement neolithic inhabitation have been discovered as well. It also has the oldest copper mines in Europe (5th millennium BC)
The present day territory of Belgrade continuously inhabited for more than 7000 years. Proto-urbanVinča culture prospered around Belgrade in the 6th millennium BC. The fortified city of Belgrade founded around 279 BC as Singidunum.
Considered to be the oldest recorded town in the United Kingdom. First British town to be given the status Colonia in the Roman empire, where it was known as Camulodunum and was recorded by Pliny the Elder. The Celtic name of the city, Camulodunon appears on coins minted by tribal chieftain Tasciovanus in the period 20–10 BC. Before the Roman conquest of Britain, it was already a centre of power for Celtic king Cunobeline.[254]
Second-oldest city in Australia. Prior to British settlement, the area had been occupied for at least 8,000 years, but possibly for as long as 35,000 years,[262] by the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuennone, or South-East tribe.[263]
First official European settlement in South Australia, Australia's first free settled colony. Situated on Kangaroo Island, it was occupied by an Aboriginal group from as long as 16,000 years ago until their disappearance 2,000–4,000 years ago.
^It is salient to the discussion of continuous habitation that Cortés's initial founding of Veracruz was symbolic, rather than because he was actually establishing a permanent settlement. Founding a town allowed Cortés and his men to portray the land as not part of the Caribbean, thereby removing them from under the authority of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar. Velázquez had revoked permission for the expedition before Cortés departed Cuba.[43]
^Jean-Daniel Stanley et al., "Alexandria, Egypt, before Alexander the Great: A multidisciplinary approach yields rich discoveries"; GSA Today 17 (8), August 2007; doi:10.1130/GSAT01708A.1.
^S.C. Munro-Hay, Excavations at Aksum (London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1989), pp. 12-25 ISBN0500970084
^Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 15
^Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600–1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p. 75.
^Cissé, M.; McIntosh, S.K.; Dussubieux, L.; Fenn, T.; Gallagher, D.; Chipps Smith, A. (2013), "Excavations at Gao Saney: new evidence for settlement growth, trade, and interaction on the Niger Bend in the first millennium CE", Journal of African Archaeology, 11 (1): 9–37, doi:10.3213/2191-5784-10233
^Bethwell A. Ogot, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, (UNESCO Publishing, 2000), 303.
^Sauvaget, J. (1950), "Les épitaphes royales de Gao", Bulletin de l'Ifan, XII (2): 418–440
^Moraes Farias, Paulo F. de (1990), "The oldest extant writing of West Africa: medieval epigraphs from Essuk, Saney, and Egef-n-Tawaqqast (Mali)", Journal des Africanistes, 60 (2): 65–113, doi:10.3406/jafr.1990.2452
^Saad, Elias. "Social history of Timbuktu: 1400–1900. The role of Muslim scholars and notables. (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1980)
^"Oaxaca | Mexico, Population, Map, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-03-05. Oaxaca, city, capital of Oaxaca estado (state), southern Mexico, lying in the fertile Oaxaca Valley, 5,085 feet (1,550 metres) above sea level. The city site, which has been inhabited for thousands of years, was important to numerous pre-Columbian civilizations, as evidenced by the Zapotec ruins at Monte Albán,
^Carbajal Correa, María del Carmen (2018). "Four Archaeological Sites in the State of Mexico"(PDF). Voices of Mexico: 92–94. From the late pre-classical period (400 B.C. to A.D. 200) on, there were organized settlements with Olmec influence in the Valley of Toluca.
^Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1987). El Tajín : a guide for visitors. Internet Archive. Veracruz Universidad Veracruzana. pp. 20–21. ISBN978-968-499-293-1. 100 D.C: Subestructura del edificio 4 (100 A.D: Substructure of building 4)". "Ciudades mesoamericanas. 100 D.C: El Tajín (Mesoamerican cities. 100 D.C: El Tajín)
^"Hopi Places". Cline Library, Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2022-08-20.
^Valencia Valera, Víctor Hugo (2022). "Zona Arqueológica Teopanzolco" (in Spanish). Teopanzolco es una zona arqueológica del Valle de Morelos, cuyas evidencias más tempranas de ocupación se remontan al Posclásico Medio. Las excavaciones arqueológicas confirman que hubo por lo menos tres etapas constructivas de este asentamiento; en cada una de ellas se destruían parcialmente los edificios antiguos y sobre sus restos, se levantaban nuevos, a veces con una distribución distinta. Bajo el piso de la gran plaza se encuentran sepultados restos de los desplantes de los viejos muros y al interior de los basamentos, hay evidencias de la presencia de otros, más antiguos. Los primeros pobladores de Teopanzolco posiblemente eran los Tlahuicas, como lo mencionan las fuentes escritas del siglo XVI. A la llegada de los mexicas que conquistaron esta región y lo incluyeran a su imperio, Teopanzolco estaba en apogeo de su desarrollo. Los renovados templos, basamentos, casas y palacio, tuvieron que impresionar a los mexicas, sobre todo el imponente basamento de los templos de Tlaloc y Huitzilopochtli. En su interior estaban ocultos todavía dos templos más antiguos, que vieron luz hasta los años 1921 y 2018, respectivamente. Desafortunadamente el crecimiento de la moderna ciudad de Cuernavaca, borro muchas evidencias sobre la extensión original de este asentamiento y de la magnitud de sus construcciones durante el apogeo de su desarrollo. En los predios colindantes con la zona arqueológica se han detectado huellas de muros y materiales arqueológicos que nos amplían información sobre la historia de este lugar en época prehispánica. Ubicación cronológica principal: Posclásico Medio y Tardío, 1200 a 1521 d.C.
^Thiel, J. Homer. Cultural History of the Tucson Basin and the Project Area. pp. 7–11.
^Downum, Charles E. (1993). Between Desert and River. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. pp. 1–30. ISBN9780816518128.
^ abcClark, Joseph M. H. (19 January 2023). "Chapter 1: Veracruz Before the Caribbean". Veracruz and the Caribbean in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–48. doi:10.1017/9781009180337.002.
^Arango, J.; Durán, F.; Martín, J.G.; Arroyo, S. (Eds.). Panamá Viejo. De la aldea a la urbe. Patronato Panamá Viejo, Panamá, 2007.
^Santa Fe, New Mexico, which is sometimes cited for this, was abandoned due to Indian raiding from 1680 to 1692, and its inhabitants did not succeed in living in the area continuously until after 1692.
^Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2006). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 104. ISBN1-57607-919-8. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2009-07-22. Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.
^ ab"Ancient City of Damascus". Archived from the original on 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-04-05. Historical and archaeological sources testify to origins in the third millennium BC, and Damascus is widely known as among the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world.
^Burns, Ross (2007). Damascus: A History. Routledge. p. 2. ISBN978-0-415-41317-6. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2020-11-15. It has long been a self-fulfilling assumption that Damascus is a city older than time. The belief that this was one of the first urban centres appears a little fanciful as we have no evidence of any large-scale settlement on the site of the present walled city at least until the second millennium BC. There is certainly evidence of earlier settlement in the wider Barada basin going back to 9000 BC but there is so far no consistent picture of how the Damascus area was exploited though it seems to have been only lightly populated.
^Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001). "Jerusalem". Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York and London: Continuum. pp. 260–61. ISBN0-8264-1316-1. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
^Freedman, David Noel (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 694–95. ISBN0-8028-2400-5. 1. Ceramic evidence indicates some occupation of Ophel as early as early as the Chalcolithic period. 2. Remains of a building witness to a permanent settlement on Ophel during the early centuries (ca. 3000–2800 B.C.E.) of the Early Bronze Age
^Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived from the original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
^Nadav Naʼaman, Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 180.
^Vale, Lawrence (2008) [1992]. Architecture, Power and National Identity (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 115. ISBN978-1-134-72921-0. When the decision to designate Ankara as the capital of a modern nation-state was taken in the 1920s, it represented the reinvigoration of a small town that had been inhabited continuously since the twentieth century B.C.
^Excavations at Ancient Jaffa (Joppa). Tel Aviv University.
^Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. ISBN9781576079195.
^Gates, Charles (2003). "Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Aegean Cities". Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN0-415-01895-1. Jericho, in the Jordan River Valley in Palestine, inhabited from ca. 9000 BC to the present day, offers important evidence for the earliest permanent settlements in the Near East.
^Martell, Hazel Mary (2001). "The Fertile Crescent". The Kingfisher Book of the Ancient World: From the Ice Age to the Fall of Rome. Kingfisher Publications. p. 18. ISBN0-7534-5397-5. People first settled there from around 9000 B.C., and by 8000 B.C., the community was organised enough to build a stone wall to defend the city.
^Michal Strutin, Discovering Natural Israel (2001), p. 4.
^Ryan, Donald P. (1999). "Digging up the Bible". The Complete Idiot's Guide to Lost Civilizations. Alpha Books. p. [1]. ISBN0-02-862954-X. Archived from the original on 2020-05-17. Retrieved 2020-04-23. The city was walled during much of its history and the evidence indicates that it was abandoned several times, and later expanded and rebuilt several times.
^Kenneth Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Eerdmans 2003), pp. 187
^ ab"Medina". www.al-madinah.org. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
^"Vani". eurasia.travel. Archived from the original on 2017-03-19. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
^International dictionary of historic places By Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, K. A. Berney, Paul E. Schellinger
^ abHarootunian, N.V. (1959). "К датировке основания города Еревана" [On the date of the foundation of Yerevan]. Historical-Philological Journal (in Russian) (2–3): 94–96. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. [С]тановится вполне ясным, что время основания этого города падает на 782 год до нашей эры.... [А]рхеологический материал, происходивший из раскопок Эребуни-Еревана, с достаточной достоверностью показывает, что этот город продолжал свое существование не только в последний период урартского владычества... но и после него, т.е. в VI-V вв. до нашей еры. О дальнейшей судьбе Еревана, вплоть до начала VII века нашей эры, история, к сожалению, умалчивает. После потери своего первенствующего значения еще в эпоху Урарту, он, по всей вероятности, свыше десяти веков продолжал оставаться одним из многочисленных рядовых поселков («аван»-ов) исторической Армении. С начала же VII века нашей эры Ереван снова начинает приобретать удельный вес и фигурирует снова в «Книге посланий» а затем — в «Истоии» Себеоса. В дальнейшем название Еревана все чаще и чаще упоминается в средневековых армянских источниках... [ [I]t becomes quite clear that the founding of this city falls on 782BC.... [A]rcheological material originating from the excavations at Erebuni-Yerevan shows with sufficient credibility that this city continued to exist not only in the final period of Urartian rule... but also after it, i.e. in the 6th–5th centuries BC. Regarding the subsequent fate of Erevan, history is unfortunately silent until the beginning of the 7th century AD. After losing its foremost significance all the way back in the era of Urartu, it most likely continued to be one of the many rank-and-file villages ('avans') of historical Armenia. Then, from the beginning of the 7th century AD Erevan once again begins to acquire particular weight and appears for the first time in the Book of Messages, then in Sebeos's History. Thereafter the name of Erevan is mentioned with increasing frequency in medieval Armenian sources...]
^ abDeschamps, Stephane (22 February 2016) [23 October 2015]. "Erebuni in the context of Urartean fortresses in the Ararat plain: Sources and problems". Quaternary International. 395: 208–215. Bibcode:2016QuInt.395..208D. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.056. Erebuni fortress, located on the hill of Arin Berd (Yerevan) is one of the three main Urartian fortresses erected in the Ararat plain... Built during the reign of king Argishti I in 782BC, it marks the extension of the kingdom of Urartu to the north since the reign of Menua and the control of the Ararat plain during the reign of king Argishti.
^ abBloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Delhi to Mosque. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2013. Whatever the prehistoric antecedents of Istanbul, the continuous historical development of the site began with the foundation of a Greek colony from Megara in the mid-7th century BC.
^Gela Gamkrelidze. RESEARCHES IN IBERIA-COLCHOLOGY. Edited by David Braiind (Prof, of University of Exeter (UK)) // Olar LORDKIPANIDZE ADNTRE OF ARCHAEOLOGY OF GEORGIAN NATIONAL MUSEUM. P. 43 "According to the data on archaeological excavations on the Gabashvili, Dateshidze and Ukimerioni hills in Kutaisi, an urban-type settlement of the 6-5 cent. BC was found to be concentrated"
^Khan, Ahmad Nabi (1983). Multan: History and Architecture. Institute of Islamic History, Culture & Civilization, Islamic University. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2021-11-18.
^"4,000-year-old crafts village unearthed near Varanasi". The Hindu. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2020. Professor Dubey "said the site gains significance because of its proximity to Varanasi, which is said to be 5,000 years old, though modern scholars believe it to be around 3,000 years old."
^Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich) (1993). Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ(PDF) (in Russian). Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich). Dushanbe: Izd-vo "Donish". pp. 107–108. ISBN5-8366-0427-4. OCLC32311792. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2023-02-09. Retrieved 2023-03-08.
^Macy, Laura Williams (2002). Yavan, Oxford Art Online. [Basingstoke, England]: Macmillan. ISBN1-884446-05-1. OCLC50959350.
^Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents, p.374
^"历史沿革". 荆州市人民政府. 2023-06-04. Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
^Short, John R. (1992), Human Settlement, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 212
^Peter Haggett (ed.), Encyclopedia of World Geography, vol. 20: China and Taiwan, Marshall Cavendish, p. 2844
^Gray, John Henry (1875), Walks in the City of Canton, Hong Kong: De Souza & Co., p. 1–2, archived from the original on January 18, 2021, retrieved November 6, 2015
^ abCoedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^ abCoedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of south-east Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^Scott, WilliamPrehispanic Source Materials: For the Study of Philippine History, p. 66
^Bullough, Nigel (1995). Mujiyono PH (ed.). Historic East Java: Remains in Stone (Indonesian 50th independence day commemorative ed.). Jakarta: ADLine Communications. p. 19.
^Founded during the reign of King Pontarika, per Charles James Forbes Smith-Forbes (1882). Legendary History of Burma and Arakan. The Government Press. p. 20. Archived from the original on 2009-02-06. Retrieved 2019-11-16.; the king's reign was 1028 to 1043 per Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. p. 368.
^Ouano-Savellon, Romola (11 August 2018). ""Aginid Bayok Sa Atong Tawarik": Archaic Cebuano and Historicity in a Folk Narrative". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 42 (3/4): 189–220. JSTOR44512020.
^ abHenson, Mariano A (1955). The Province of Pampanga and its towns (A.D. 1300–1955) with the genealogy of the rulers of central Luzon. Manila: Villanueva Books.
^Colquhoun, Archibald Ross (1885). Amongst the Shans. New York: Scribner & Welford. p. 121. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
^Cœdès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of south-east Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^See also the chronicle of Chiang Mai, Zinme Yazawin, in Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 4. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006J541LE
^The story is recorded in JMBRAS magazine, October 1935, Volume XIII Part 2, pp. 15–16.
^History for Malaysia (2010). Melaka from the Top. De Witt, Dennis. ISBN978-983-43519-2-2.
^Chandrashtitya, Tipawan; Matungka, Chiraporn. ประวัติเมืองธนบุรี [History of Thonburi City]. Arts & Cultural Office (in Thai). Dhonburi Rajabhat University. Archived from the original on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
^Tung, Anthony (2001). "The City the Gods Besieged". Preserving the World's Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 266. ISBN0-609-80815-X.
^Immerwahr, Sara A. (1971). The Athenian Agora, Vol. XIII: The Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Gleuckstadt, DE: J.J. AUGUSTIN. p. Preface, vii. ISBN978-0-87661-213-2. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020. The very quantity of material is a striking proof of the habitation of the Agora and the surrounding slopes of the Acropolis, Areopagus and the neighboring hills from at least the fourth millennium B.C.
^De Angelis, Daniela, ed. (2014). "Scutari". Oppo e 3 ricerche su Pomezia. Gangemi. ISBN9788849228823. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2020-11-15. Scutari fu fondata intorno al V-IV secolo a.C. Dagli scavi archeologici eseguiti al castello di Rozafa, si dedusse che il centro era già abitato dall'età del bronzo
^Shpuza, Saimir; Dyczek, Piotr (2015). "Scodra, de la capitale du Royaume Illyrien à la capitale de la province romaine". In Jean-Luc Lamboley; Luan Përzhita; Altin Skenderaj (eds.). L'Illyrie Méridionale et l'Épire dans l'Antiquité – VI (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Diffusion De Boccard. p. 269. ISBN978-9928-4517-1-2.
^Hogan, C Michael (January 23, 2008). "Cydonia". The Modern Antiquarian. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2012. The most powerful centre of western Crete, Cydonia produced Bronze Age pottery and Linear B writings circa 1700 to 1500 BC, and was one of the first cities of Europe to mint coinage. (Pashley, 1837)
^Michael D. Phillips (1995). "Cádiz (Cádiz, Spain)". In Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (eds.). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. London: Routledge. pp. 109–112.
^ abToxey, Anne Parmly (2016). "Recasting Materan Identity: the Warring and Melding of Political Ideologies Carved in Stone". In Micara, Ludovico; Petruccioli, Attilio; Vadini, Ettore (eds.). The Mediterranean Medina: International Seminar. Gangemi Editore. p. 541. ISBN978-88-492-9013-4.
^Leonardo A. Chisena, Matera dalla civita al piano: stratificazione, classi sociali e costume politico, Congedo, 1984, p.7
^Daryaee, Touraj (2002). Šahrestānīhā Ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic, and History. Costa Mesa, California U.S.A.: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 14, 18. ISBN1-56859-143-8.
^An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 330,"Epidamnos was founded in either 627 or 625 (Hieron. Chron)"
^Sassi, Barbara (2018). "Sulle faglie il mito fondativo: i terremoti a Durrës (Durazzo, Albania) dall'Antichità al Medioevo"(PDF). In Cavalieri, Marco; Boschetti, Cristina (eds.). Multa per aequora. Il polisemico significato della moderna ricerca archeologica. Omaggio a Sara Santoro. Fervet Opus 4, Vol. 2, part VII: Archeologia dei Balcani (in Italian). Presses Universitaires de Louvain, with the support of Centre d'étude des Mondes antiques (CEMA) of the Université catholique de Louvain. pp. 942, 951, 952. ISBN978-2-87558-692-6. Archived from the original on 2023-03-14. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
^Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2016). Warfare in Medieval Europe, c. 400 – c. 1453. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN978-1-315-51263-1. Archived from the original on 2023-08-26. Retrieved 2023-08-26. On the positive side of the ledger, excavations in cities such as Cologne, Metz, Paris, and Marseilles demonstrate not only continued habitation, but even robust building efforts during the fifth century and beyond.
^Poulter, A.G. (April 2022). "Tomis". pleiades.stoa.org. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
^An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 941
^Kryzhytskyi, Serhiy. Iсторична довiдка [Historical reference]. Official website of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (in Ukrainian).
^ abPetropoulos, Ilias. "Mesembria (Antiquity)". Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Εύξεινος Πόντος. Archived from the original on 9 October 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
^An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 936
^The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, ISBN0-521-22717-8, 1992, page 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin."
^Shpuza, Saimir (2014). Dyczek, Piotr (ed.). "Iron Age Fortifications and the Origin of the City in the Territory of Scodra". Novensia. 25. Warszawa: Ośrodek Badań nad Antykiem Europy Południowo-Wschodniej: 106, 116–118. ISBN978-83-934239-96. ISSN0860-5777.
^ abWomen and slaves in Greco-Roman culture: differential equations by Sandra Rae Joshel, Sheila Murnaghan, 1998, page 214, "Philip II founded cities at Beroe, Kabyle, and Philippopolis in 342/1, and Aegean-style urban life began to penetrate Thrace."
^ abThe cities in Thrace and Dacia in late antiquity: (studies and materials) by Velizar Iv Velkov,1977, page 128, "Founded by Philipp II on the site of an old Thracian settlement, it has existed without interruption from that time."
^Late Roman villas in the Danube-Balkan region by Lynda Mulvin, 2002, page 19, "Other roads went through Beroe (founded by Philip II of Macedon)",
^Philip of Macedon by Louïza D. Loukopoulou, 1980, page 98, "Upriver in the valley between the Rhodope and Haimos Philip founded Beroe (Stara Zagora) and Philippolis (Plovdiv)."
^Fiedler, M.; Lahi, B.; Shehi, E.; Pánczél, S.-P.; Velo, K.; Döhner, Gregor (2021). "Ausgrabungen in der Kleinsiedlung Babunjë bei Apollonia (Albanien) Bericht zu den Kampagnen 2018–2019". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung (RM). 127: 137. Die Illyrier durchliefen eine dynamische Ent-wicklung mit Gründung eigener Städte wohl ab dem mittleren 4. Jh. v. Chr. wie Dimal und Byllis68. Ob hierzu auch Antipatreia (Berat)69 am östlichen Eingang zur Myzeqe-Ebene nur 40 km von Babunjë entfernt gehörte oder die Stadt erst durch Kassander (neu?) gegründet wurde, ist derzeit offen.
^The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia. (ed.) David Horton. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1994 [2 vols] (see: Vol. 2, pp. 1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further Reading' section on pp. 1245–72).
^Gary Presland, The First Residents of Melbourne's Western Region, (revised edition), Harriland Press, 1997. ISBN0-646-33150-7. Presland says on page 1: "There is some evidence to show that people were living in the Maribyrnong River valley, near present day Keilor, about 40,000 years ago."
^Gary Presland, Aboriginal Melbourne: The Lost Land of the Kulin People, Harriland Press (1985), Second edition 1994, ISBN0-9577004-2-3. This book describes in some detail the archaeological evidence regarding aboriginal life, culture, food gathering and land management, particularly the period from the flooding of Bass Strait and Port Phillip from about 7–10,000 years ago, up to the European colonisation in the nineteenth century.
^Isabel Ellender and Peter Christiansen, People of the Merri Merri. The Wurundjeri in Colonial Days, Merri Creek Management Committee, 2001 ISBN0-9577728-0-7
^Flood, J. M.; David, B.; Magee, J.; English, B. (1987), "Birrigai: a Pleistocene site in the south eastern highlands", Archaeology in Oceania, 22: 9–22, doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1987.tb00159.x
