Infections associated with diseases

Infections associated with diseases are those infections that are associated with possible infectious etiologies that meet the requirements of Koch's postulates. Other methods of causation are described by the Bradford Hill criteria and evidence-based medicine.

Koch's postulates have been modified by some epidemiologists, based on the sequence-based detection of distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences in tissue samples. When using this method, absolute statements regarding causation are not always possible. Higher amounts of distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences should be in those exhibiting disease, compared to controls. In addition, the DNA load should become lower with the resolution of the disease. The distinctive pathogenic nucleic acid sequences load should also increase upon recurrence.

Other conditions are met to establish cause or association including studies in disease transmission. This means that there should be a high disease occurrence in those carrying a pathogen, evidence of a serological response to the pathogen, and the success of vaccination prevention. Direct visualization of the pathogen, the identification of different strains, immunological responses in the host, how the infection is spread and, the combination of these should all be taken into account to determine the probability that an infectious agent is the cause of the disease. A conclusive determination of a causal role of an infectious agent for in a particular disease using Koch's postulates is desired yet this might not be possible.[1]

The leading cause of death worldwide is cardiovascular disease, but infectious diseases are the second leading cause of death worldwide and the leading cause of death in infants and children.[2]

Other causes

Other causes or associations of disease are: a compromised immune system, environmental toxins, radiation exposure, diet and other lifestyle choices, stress, and genetics. Diseases may also be multifactorial, requiring multiple factors to induce disease. For example: in a murine model, Crohn's disease can be precipitated by a norovirus, but only when both a specific gene variant is present and a certain toxin has damaged the gut.[3]

List of diseases associated with infectious bacteria and viruses

A list of the more common and well-known diseases associated with infectious pathogens is provided and is not intended to be a complete listing.

Asthma Mycoplasma pneumoniae[4] and Chlamydia pneumoniae infections are associated with the onset and symptoms of asthma.[5]
Autoimmune diseases Autoimmune diseases are associated with Neoehrlichia mikurensis infection, and Borrelia miyamotoi infection,[1] and HIV,[6] and the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.[7] Autoimmune thyroid disease is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[8]
Cancer Anal cancer is associated with human papillomaviruses.[9]

Bladder cancer Schistosoma helminths can cause cancer.[10]
Brain tumor. Glioblastoma multiforme is associated with cytomegalovirus,[11] BK virus, JC virus, and simian virus 40.[12]
Breast cancer is associated with mouse mammary tumor virus, Epstein-Barr virus, and human papillomaviruses.[13]
Carcinoid tumors are associated with enterovirus infections.[14]
Cervical cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.[15][16]
Colorectal cancer is associated with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis and Fusobacterium nucleatum,[17] with human papillomaviruses,[18] and with the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[19] JC virus may be a risk factor for colorectal cancer.[20]
Gallbladder cancer is associated with the bacterium Salmonella Typhi.[21]
Hodgkin's lymphoma is associated with Epstein-Barr virus,[22] hepatitis C virus,[23] and HIV.[24]
Kaposi's Sarcoma can be caused by Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus and HIV.
Liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma can be caused by hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus,[25] and by the helminth Schistosoma japonicum.[26]
Lung cancer is associated with the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae,[27] with human papillomaviruses, and with Merkel cell polyomavirus.[28]
Leukemia. Adult T-cell leukemia can be caused by human T-cell leukemia virus-1.
Mesothelioma is associated with simian virus 40,[29] especially in conjunction with asbestos exposure.
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma can be caused by Epstein-Barr virus.
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is associated with HIV and simian virus 40.[30]
Oropharyngeal cancer can be caused by human papillomaviruses.
Ovarian cancer is associated with mumps virus.
Pancreatic cancer is associated with hepatitis B virus and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Prostate cancer is associated with xenotropic murine leukemia virus-related virus and BK virus.
Skin neoplasm is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Squamous cell carcinoma is associated with human papillomaviruses.
Stomach cancer is associated with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori.
Thyroid cancer is associated with simian virus 40.

Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome (also known as myalgic encephalomyelitis) is associated with enteroviruses (such as Coxsackie B virus),[31][32] human herpesvirus 6 variant A,[33] human herpesvirus 7,[34] and parvovirus B19.[35][36] The bacteria Coxiella burnetii[37] and Chlamydia pneumoniae[38] are known causes of chronic fatigue syndrome (antibiotics can cure these bacterial forms of chronic fatigue syndrome).
Common cold The common cold is also known as Acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) and is caused by a viral infection.[39] Efforts to develop vaccines are ongoing.[2]
Crohn's disease One study found ileocecal Crohn's disease is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus (but note that all the study cohort with ileocecal Crohn's disease had disease-associated mutations in either their NOD2 or ATG16L1 genes).[40] Crohn's disease is associated with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.[41] In a murine model, Crohn's disease is precipitated by the norovirus CR6 strain,[3][42] but only in combination with a variant of the Crohn's susceptibility gene ATG16L1, and chemical toxic damage to the gut. In other words, in this mouse model, Crohn's is precipitated only when these three causal factors (virus, gene, and toxin) act in combination.
Coronary heart disease Coronary heart disease is associated with herpes simplex virus 1 and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[43]
Dementia Dementia is associated with herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, cytomegalovirus, West Nile virus, bornavirus, and HIV. Dementia is also associated with the helminth Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and with Borrelia species bacteria.[44]
Depression Depression is associated with cytomegalovirus[45] and West Nile virus,[46] and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[47] It is thought that depression may be precipitated by the effect of immune signals (such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) reaching the brain from infections located in the peripheries of the body.[48][49]

Major depressive disorder is associated with bornavirus,[50] as well as Bartonella[51] and Borrelia[44] species bacteria.
Seasonal affective disorder is associated with Epstein-Barr virus.[52]

Diabetes mellitus type 1 Diabetes mellitus type 1 is associated with viral species from the enterovirus genus,[53][54] specifically echovirus 4[55] and Coxsackie B virus (the latter it is thought may infect and destroy the insulin producing beta-cells in the pancreas and also damage these cells via indirect autoimmune mechanisms).[56][57] One study found Coxsackie B1 virus associated with a higher risk of the beta cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes; though Coxsackie B3 and B6 viruses were found to be associated with a reduced risk of such autoimmunity (possibly due to immune cross-protection against Coxsackie B1 virus).[58] In boys, human parechovirus infection has been linked to a subsequent appearance of diabetes-associated autoantibodies.[59]
Diabetes mellitus type 2 Diabetes mellitus type 2 is associated with cytomegalovirus,[60] hepatitis C virus,[61] enteroviruses,[54] Ljungan virus[62]
Dilated cardiomyopathy Dilated cardiomyopathy is associated with enteroviruses such as Coxsackie B virus.[63]
Epilepsy Epilepsy is associated with human herpesvirus 6.[64]
Gonorrhea Men who have had a gonorrhea infection have a risk of having prostate cancer.[65]
Guillain–Barré syndrome Guillain–Barré syndrome is associated with the bacterium Campylobacter jejuni, and with the viruses cytomegalovirus[66] and enterovirus.[67]
Irritable bowel syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is associated with the bacteria enteroaggregative Escherichia coli[68] and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis,[69] the protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia,[70] and pathogenic strains of the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis.[71] Irritable bowel syndrome in those with HIV is associated with the protozoan Dientamoeba fragilis.[72]
Low back pain Lower back pain is associated with a spinal disc infection with anaerobic bacteria, especially the bacterium Cutibacterium acnes.[73][74]
Lupus Lupus is associated with the viruses parvovirus B19,[75] Epstein-Barr virus,[76] and cytomegalovirus.[77]
Lyme disease Lyme disease is associated with infection by Borrelia miyamotoi, and Rickettsia species.[1]
Metabolic syndrome Metabolic syndrome is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae[78] and Helicobacter pylori, as well as the viruses cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus 1.[79]
Multiple sclerosis Multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disease, is associated with Epstein-Barr virus[80] (and strongly associated with certain genetic variants of this virus),[81] human herpesvirus 6,[82] varicella zoster virus,[83] and the bacterium Chlamydia pneumoniae.[84]
Myocardial infarction Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae,[85] cytomegalovirus[86] and Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus).[87] (Coxsackie B virus is also associated with sudden unexpected death due to myocarditis).[88]
Obesity Obesity is associated with adenovirus 36, which is found in 30% of obese people, but only in 11% of non-obese people.[89][90] It has further been demonstrated that animals experimentally infected with adenovirus 36 (or adenovirus 5, or adenovirus 37) will develop increased obesity.[91] Adenovirus 36 induces obesity by infecting fat cells (adipocytes), wherein the expression of the adenovirus E4orf1 gene turns on both the cell's fat producing enzymes and also instigates the generation of new fat cells.[92] Evidence suggests that obesity can be a viral disease, and that the worldwide obesity epidemic that began in the 1980s may be in part due to viral infection.[93][94]

Obesity is also associated with higher gut levels of certain Bacillota bacteria in relation to Bacteroidota bacteria. Overweight individuals tend have more Bacillota bacteria (such as Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Helicobacter pylori) in their gut, whereas normal weight individuals tend have more Bacteroidota bacteria.[95]

Obsessive–compulsive disorder Obsessive–compulsive disorder is associated with Streptococcus[96] and Borrelia[44] species bacteria.
Panic disorder Panic disorder is associated with Borrelia[44] and Bartonella[51] species bacteria.[51]
Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease is associated with influenza A virus,[97] as well as the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[98]
Psoriasis Psoriasis is associated with a Helicobacter pylori trigger.[99]
Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with parvovirus B19.[75]
Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is associated with Mycobacteria[100] species and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori[101]
Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is associated with bornavirus,[50] the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis,[102] as well as Borrelia species bacteria.[44] Schizophrenia is also linked to neonatal infection with Coxsackie B virus (an enterovirus), which one study found carries an increased risk of adult onset schizophrenia.[103] Prenatal exposure to influenza virus in the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of schizophrenia by 7-fold.[104]
Severe acute respiratory syndrome Severe acute respiratory syndrome is a viral disease. Efforts to develop a vaccine are ongoing.[2]
Stroke Stroke is associated with the bacteria Chlamydia pneumoniae,[105] Helicobacter pylori,[106] Mycobacterium tuberculosis,[107] and Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[108] as well as the virus varicella zoster virus[109] and Histoplasma species fungi.[110]
Thromboangiitis obliterans Thromboangiitis obliterans is associated with Rickettsia species bacteria.[111]
Tourette syndrome Tourette syndrome is associated with Streptococcus species bacteria.[112]

Aggravating or contributory microbes in Tourette's may include the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae,[113] Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii.[114]

Vasculitis Vasculitis is associated with HIV, parvovirus B19,[75] and hepatitis B virus. The hepatitis C virus is an established cause of vasculitis.

Epidemiology

Infectious pathogen-associated diseases include many of the most common and costly chronic illnesses. The treatment of chronic diseases accounts for 75% of all US healthcare costs (amounting to $1.7 trillion in 2009).[115]

History

One of first examples of systematic study of disease causation was Avicenna, in the tenth century. The history of infection and disease were observed in the 1800s and related to the one of the tick-borne diseases, Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The cause of viral encephalitis was discovered in Russia based upon epidemiological clustering of cases. The virus causing this illness was isolated in 1937. The rash typical of Lyme borreliosis was identified the early 1900s.[1] Historically, some chronic diseases were linked or associated with infectious pathogens.[116][117][118]

See also

References

Using Wikipedia for Research

  1. ^ a b c d Tijsse-Klasen, Ellen; Koopmans, Marion P. G.; Sprong, Hein (2014). "Tick-Borne Pathogen â€" Reversed and Conventional Discovery of Disease". Frontiers in Public Health. 2: 73. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2014.00073. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 4083466. PMID 25072045.
  2. ^ a b c Lee, Sujin; Nguyen, Minh Trang (2015). "Recent Advances of Vaccine Adjuvants for Infectious Diseases". Immune Network. 15 (2): 51–7. doi:10.4110/in.2015.15.2.51. ISSN 1598-2629. PMC 4411509. PMID 25922593.
  3. ^ a b Cadwell, Ken; Patel, Khushbu K.; Maloney, Nicole S.; Liu, Ta-Chiang; Ng, Aylwin C.Y.; Storer, Chad E.; Head, Richard D.; Xavier, Ramnik; et al. (June 2010). "Virus-Plus-Susceptibility Gene Interaction Determines Crohn's Disease Gene Atg16L1 Phenotypes in Intestine". Cell. 141 (7): 1135–45. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.05.009. PMC 2908380. PMID 20602997.
  4. ^ Gavranich, John B; Chang, Anne B (2015). "Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 1 (9): CD004875. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004875.pub5. PMC 10585423. PMID 25566754.
  5. ^ Guilbert, T.W; Denlinger, L.C (2010). "Role of infection in the development and exacerbation of asthma". Expert Rev Respir Med. 4 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1586/ers.09.60. PMC 2840256. PMID 20305826.
  6. ^ Stratton, Richard; Slapak, Gabrielle; Mahungu, Tabitha; Loes, Sabine Kinloch-de (2009). "Autoimmunity and HIV". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 22 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e3283210006. PMID 19532080. S2CID 25617795.
  7. ^ Shapira, Yinon; Agmon-Levin, Nancy; Shoenfeld, Yehuda (2009). "Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, Autoimmunity, and Vitamin D". Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 38 (2–3): 169–77. doi:10.1007/s12016-009-8150-1. PMID 19543859. S2CID 11540630.
  8. ^ Thomas, Dimitrios; Karachaliou, Feneli; Kallergi, Konstantina; Vlachopapadopoulou, Elpis; Antonaki, Georgia; Chatzimarkou, Fotini; Fotinou, Aspasia; Kaldrymides, Philippos; Michalacos, Stefanos (2008). "Herpes virus antibodies seroprevalence in children with autoimmune thyroid disease". Endocrine. 33 (2): 171–5. doi:10.1007/s12020-008-9068-8. PMID 18473192. S2CID 7457094.
  9. ^ "Anal Cancer Treatment". National Cancer Institute. May 12, 2015. Retrieved 2015-07-21.
  10. ^ "Schistosomiasis Fact sheet N°115". World Health Organization. February 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  11. ^ Söderberg-Nauclér, Cecilia (2015). "Cytomegalovirus in human brain tumors: Role in pathogenesis and potential treatment options". World Journal of Experimental Medicine. 5 (1): 1–10. doi:10.5493/wjem.v5.i1.1. ISSN 2220-315X. PMC 4308527. PMID 25699229.
  12. ^ Barbanti-Brodano, Giuseppe; Sabbioni, Silvia; Martini, Fernanda; Negrini, Massimo; Corallini, Alfredo; Tognon, Mauro (2006). "BK Virus, JC Virus and Simian Virus 40 Infection in Humans, and Association with Human Tumors". Polyomaviruses and Human Diseases. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 577. pp. 319–41. doi:10.1007/0-387-32957-9_23. ISBN 978-0-387-29233-5. PMID 16626046.
  13. ^ Lawson, James S; Günzburg, Walter H; Whitaker, Noel J (2006). "Viruses and human breast cancer". Future Microbiology. 1 (1): 33–51. doi:10.2217/17460913.1.1.33. PMID 17661684.
  14. ^ Chia, J.; Chia, A.; El-Habbal, R. (2011). "Carcinoid tumour associated with enterovirus infection". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 64 (8): 722–4. doi:10.1136/jcp.2010.082271. PMID 21278394. S2CID 5185155.
  15. ^ Bosch, FX; Lorincz, A; Muñoz, N; Meijer, CJ; Shah, KV (2002). "The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 55 (4): 244–65. doi:10.1136/jcp.55.4.244. PMC 1769629. PMID 11919208.
  16. ^ "CDC - How Many Cancers Are Linked with HPV Each Year?". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  17. ^ Castellarin, Mauro; Warren, René L.; Freeman, J. Douglas; Dreolini, Lisa; Krzywinski, Martin; Strauss, Jaclyn; Barnes, Rebecca; Watson, Peter; et al. (February 2012). "Fusobacterium nucleatum infection is prevalent in human colorectal carcinoma". Genome Research. 22 (2): 299–306. doi:10.1101/gr.126516.111. PMC 3266037. PMID 22009989.
  18. ^ Burnett-Hartman, Andrea N.; Newcomb, Polly A.; Potter, John D. (2008). "Infectious agents and colorectal cancer: A review of Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus bovis, JC virus, and human papillomavirus". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 17 (11): 2970–9. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0571. PMC 2676114. PMID 18990738.
  19. ^ H Salim, Omer E; Hamid, Hytham K S; Mekki, Salwa O; Suleiman, Suleiman H; Ibrahim, Shakir Z (2010). "Colorectal carcinoma associated with schistosomiasis: a possible causal relationship". World Journal of Surgical Oncology. 8: 68. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-8-68. PMC 2928231. PMID 20704754.
  20. ^ Coelho, Tatiana R; Almeida, Luis; Lazo, Pedro A (2010). "JC virus in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, an etiological agent or another component in a multistep process?". Virology Journal. 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-42. PMC 2830963. PMID 20167111.
  21. ^ Samaras, V; Rafailidis, PI; Mourtzoukou, EG; Peppas, G; Falagas, ME (2010). "Chronic bacterial and parasitic infections and cancer: a review". Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. 4 (5): 267–81. doi:10.3855/jidc.819. PMID 20539059.
  22. ^ Hjalgrim, H.; Engels, E. A. (2008). "Infectious aetiology of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas: a review of the epidemiological evidence". Journal of Internal Medicine. 264 (6): 537–48. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.02031.x. PMID 19017178.
  23. ^ Mazzaro, C; Tirelli, U; Pozzato, G (2005). "Hepatitis C virus and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma 10 years later". Digestive and Liver Disease. 37 (4): 219–26. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2005.01.003. hdl:11368/2855256. PMID 15788203.
  24. ^ Carbone, Antonino; Gloghini, Annunziata; Serraino, Diego; Spina, Michele (2009). "HIV-associated Hodgkin lymphoma". Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS. 4 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32831a722b. PMID 19339934.
  25. ^ Michielsen, Peter P; Francque, Sven M; Van Dongen, Jurgen L (2005). "Viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma". World Journal of Surgical Oncology. 3: 27. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-3-27. PMC 1166580. PMID 15907199.
  26. ^ Ishii, A; Matsuoka, H; Aji, T; Ohta, N; Arimoto, S; Wataya, Y; Hayatsu, H (1994). "Parasite infection and cancer: with special emphasis on Schistosoma japonicum infections (Trematoda). A review". Mutation Research. 305 (2): 273–81. Bibcode:1994MRFMM.305..273I. doi:10.1016/0027-5107(94)90247-X. PMID 7510038.
  27. ^ Chaturvedi, A. K.; Gaydos, C. A.; Agreda, P.; Holden, J. P.; Chatterjee, N.; Goedert, J. J.; Caporaso, N. E.; Engels, E. A. (2010). "Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection and Risk for Lung Cancer". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 19 (6): 1498–505. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-1261. PMID 20501758.
  28. ^ Joh, Joongho; Jenson, A. Bennett; Moore, Grace D.; Rezazedeh, Arash; Slone, Stephen P.; Ghim, Shin-je; Kloecker, Goetz H. (2010). "Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) in non small cell lung cancer". Experimental and Molecular Pathology. 89 (3): 222–6. doi:10.1016/j.yexmp.2010.08.001. PMID 20699096.
  29. ^ Rivera, Zeyana; Strianese, Oriana; Bertino, Pietro; Yang, Haining; Pass, Harvey; Carbone, Michele (2008). "The relationship between simian virus 40 and mesothelioma". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 14 (4): 316–21. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283018220. PMID 18520265. S2CID 20962098.
  30. ^ Butel, JS; Vilchez, RA; Jorgensen, JL; Kozinetz, CA (2003). "Association between SV40 and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". Leukemia & Lymphoma. 44 (Suppl 3): S33–9. doi:10.1080/10428190310001623784. PMID 15202523. S2CID 43867258.
  31. ^ Chia, J K S; Chia, A Y (2007). "Chronic fatigue syndrome is associated with chronic enterovirus infection of the stomach". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 61 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1136/jcp.2007.050054. PMID 17873115. S2CID 15705222.
  32. ^ Chia, J.; Chia, A.; Voeller, M.; Lee, T.; Chang, R. (2009). "Acute enterovirus infection followed by myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and viral persistence". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 63 (2): 165–8. doi:10.1136/jcp.2009.070466. PMID 19828908. S2CID 30686099.
  33. ^ Di Luca, D; Zorzenon, M; Mirandola, P; Colle, R; Botta, GA; Cassai, E (1995). "Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 in chronic fatigue syndrome". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 33 (6): 1660–61. doi:10.1128/jcm.33.6.1660-1661.1995. PMC 228240. PMID 7650209.
  34. ^ Chapenko, S; Krumina, A; Kozireva, S; Nora, Z; Sultanova, A; Viksna, L; Murovska, M (2006). "Activation of human herpesviruses 6 and 7 in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome". Journal of Clinical Virology. 37: S47–51. doi:10.1016/S1386-6532(06)70011-7. PMID 17276369.
  35. ^ Seishima, Mariko; Mizutani, Yoko; Shibuya, Yoshinao; Arakawa, Chikako (2008). "Chronic Fatigue Syndrome after Human Parvovirus B19 Infection without Persistent Viremia". Dermatology. 216 (4): 341–6. doi:10.1159/000116723. PMID 18277075. S2CID 42009321.
  36. ^ Kerr, JR; Bracewell, J; Laing, I; Mattey, DL; Bernstein, RM; Bruce, IN; Tyrrell, DA (2002). "Chronic fatigue syndrome and arthralgia following parvovirus B19 infection". The Journal of Rheumatology. 29 (3): 595–602. PMID 11911112.
  37. ^ Wildman, MJ; Smith, EG; Groves, J; Beattie, JM; Caul, EO; Ayres, JG (2002). "Chronic fatigue following infection by Coxiella burnetii (Q fever): ten-year follow-up of the 1989 UK outbreak cohort". QJM. 95 (8): 527–38. doi:10.1093/qjmed/95.8.527. PMID 12145392.
  38. ^ Chia, John K. S.; Chia, Laura Y. (1999). "Chronic Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection: A Treatable Cause of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 29 (2): 452–3. doi:10.1086/520239. PMID 10476765. S2CID 31939562.
  39. ^ Stenner, Marcus; Rudak, Claudia (2014). "Diseases of the nose and paranasal sinuses in child". GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery. 12: Doc10. doi:10.3205/cto000113. PMC 4273171. PMID 25587370.
  40. ^ Nyström, Niklas; Berg, Tove; Lundin, Elin; Skog, Oskar; Hansson, Inga; Frisk, Gun; Juko-Pecirep, Ivana; Nilsson, Mats; Gyllensten, Ulf; Finkel, Yigael; Fuxe, Jonas; Wanders, Alkwin (2013). "Human Enterovirus Species B in Ileocecal Crohn's Disease". Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology. 4 (6): e38. doi:10.1038/ctg.2013.7. ISSN 2155-384X. PMC 3696939. PMID 23804031.
  41. ^ Mendoza, JL; San-Pedro, A; Culebras, E; Cíes, R; Taxonera, C; Lana, R; Urcelay, E; De La Torre, F; et al. (2010). "High prevalence of viable Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Crohn's disease". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 16 (36): 4558–63. doi:10.3748/wjg.v16.i36.4558. PMC 2945487. PMID 20857526.
  42. ^ Luiggi, Cristina; Solon, Juan Carlos (December 2010). "Equations that Spell Disaster: Researchers are pinpointing the factors that combine to produce complex diseases". The Scientist. 24 (12): 40. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
  43. ^ Roivainen, Merja; Viik-Kajander, Maarit; Palosuo, Timo; Toivanen, Petri; Leinonen, Maija; Saikku, Pekka; Tenkanen, Leena; Manninen, Vesa; et al. (2000). "Infections, inflammation, and the risk of coronary heart disease". Circulation. 101 (3): 252–7. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.252. PMID 10645920.
  44. ^ a b c d e Fallon, BA; Nields, JA (1994). "Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 151 (11): 1571–83. doi:10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571. PMID 7943444.
  45. ^ Phillips, Anna C.; Carroll, Douglas; Khan, Naeem; Moss, Paul (2008). "Cytomegalovirus is associated with depression and anxiety in older adults" (PDF). Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 22 (1): 52–5. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.06.012. PMID 17703915. S2CID 13834131.
  46. ^ Murray, KO; Resnick, M; Miller, V (2007). "Depression after infection with West Nile virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 13 (3): 479–81. doi:10.3201/eid1303.060602. PMC 2725905. PMID 17552106.
  47. ^ Kar, Nilamadhab; Misra, Baikunthanath (2004). "Toxoplasma seropositivity and depression: a case report". BMC Psychiatry. 4: 1. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-4-1. PMC 356918. PMID 15018628.
  48. ^ Dantzer R, O'Connor JC, Freund GG, Johnson RW, Kelley KW (January 2008). "From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 9 (1): 46–56. doi:10.1038/nrn2297. PMC 2919277. PMID 18073775.
  49. ^ Dantzer R (May 2009). "Cytokine, sickness behavior, and depression". Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 29 (2): 247–64. doi:10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.002. PMC 2740752. PMID 19389580.
  50. ^ a b Bode, L; Ludwig, H (2003). "Borna disease virus infection, a human mental-health risk". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 16 (3): 534–45. doi:10.1128/CMR.16.3.534-545.2003. PMC 164222. PMID 12857781.
  51. ^ a b c Schaller, JL; Burkland, GA; Langhoff, PJ (2007). "Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?". MedGenMed. 9 (3): 54. PMC 2100128. PMID 18092060.
  52. ^ Natelson, BH; Ye, N; Moul, DE; Jenkins, FJ; Oren, DA; Tapp, WN; Cheng, YC (1994). "High titers of anti-Epstein-Barr virus DNA polymerase are found in patients with severe fatiguing illness". Journal of Medical Virology. 42 (1): 42–6. doi:10.1002/jmv.1890420109. PMID 8308519. S2CID 29428623.
  53. ^ Yeung, W.-C. G.; Rawlinson, W. D.; Craig, M. E. (2011). "Enterovirus infection and type 1 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational molecular studies". BMJ. 342: d35. doi:10.1136/bmj.d35. PMC 3033438. PMID 21292721.
  54. ^ a b Richardson, S. J.; Willcox, A.; Bone, A. J.; Foulis, A. K.; Morgan, N. G. (2009). "The prevalence of enteroviral capsid protein vp1 immunostaining in pancreatic islets in human type 1 diabetes". Diabetologia. 52 (6): 1143–51. doi:10.1007/s00125-009-1276-0. hdl:10871/13814. PMID 19266182.
  55. ^ Díaz-Horta, O; Bello, M; Cabrera-Rode, E; Suárez, J; Más, P; García, I; Abalos, I; Jofra, R; et al. (2001). "Echovirus 4 and type 1 diabetes mellitus". Autoimmunity. 34 (4): 275–81. doi:10.3109/08916930109014696. PMID 11905853. S2CID 21302287.
  56. ^ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "Mark A. Pallansch, M. Steven Oberste. COMMON INFECTIONS AND UNCOMMON DISEASE: ELUSIVE ASSOCIATIONS OF ENTEROVIRUSES AND TYPE I DIABETES MELLITUS". In Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M; Najafi, Marjan (eds.). The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4.
  57. ^ Kawashima, H; Ihara, T; Ioi, H; Oana, S; Sato, S; Kato, N; Takami, T; Kashiwagi, Y; et al. (2004). "Enterovirus-related type 1 diabetes mellitus and antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in Japan". Journal of Infection. 49 (2): 147–51. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.012. PMID 15236922.
  58. ^ Laitinen OH, Honkanen H, Pakkanen O, et al. (February 2014). "Coxsackievirus B1 is associated with induction of β-cell autoimmunity that portends type 1 diabetes". Diabetes. 63 (2): 446–55. doi:10.2337/db13-0619. PMID 23974921.
  59. ^ Kolehmainen P, Koskiniemi M, Oikarinen S, et al. (September 2013). "Human parechovirus and the risk of type 1 diabetes". J. Med. Virol. 85 (9): 1619–23. doi:10.1002/jmv.23659. PMID 23852688. S2CID 25206855.
  60. ^ Roberts, BW; Cech, I (2005). "Association of type 2 diabetes mellitus and seroprevalence for cytomegalovirus". Southern Medical Journal. 98 (7): 686–92. doi:10.1097/01.SMJ.0000163310.12516.2D. PMID 16108236. S2CID 12678568.
  61. ^ Negro, F; Alaei, M (2009). "Hepatitis C virus and type 2 diabetes". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 15 (13): 1537–47. doi:10.3748/wjg.15.1537. PMC 2669937. PMID 19340895.
  62. ^ Holmberg, Rebecka; Klitz, William; Blixt, Martin; Berggren, Per-Olof; Juntti-Berggren, Lisa; Niklasson, Bo (2009). "Antiviral treatments reduce severity of diabetes in Ljungan virus-infected CD-1 mice and delay onset in diabetes-prone BB rats". Microbiology and Immunology. 53 (10): 567–72. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2009.00160.x. PMID 19780970. S2CID 40093920.
  63. ^ San Martín, Miguel A; García, Ángel; Rodríguez, Francisco J; Terol, Ignacio (2002). "Autoinmunidad y miocardiopatía dilatada: situación actual y perspectivas" [Dilated Cardiomyopathy and Autoimmunity: an Overview of Current Knowledge and Perspectives]. Revista Española de Cardiología (in Spanish). 55 (5): 514–24. doi:10.1016/s0300-8932(02)76644-x. PMID 12015932. S2CID 73293322.
  64. ^ Fotheringham, Julie; Donati, Donatella; Akhyani, Nahid; Fogdell-Hahn, Anna; Vortmeyer, Alexander; Heiss, John D.; Williams, Elizabeth; Weinstein, Steven; et al. (2007). "Association of Human Herpesvirus-6B with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy". PLOS Medicine. 4 (5): e180. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040180. PMC 1880851. PMID 17535102.
  65. ^ Caini, Saverio; Gandini, Sara; Dudas, Maria; Bremer, Viviane; Severi, Ettore; Gherasim, Alin (2014). "Sexually transmitted infections and prostate cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Cancer Epidemiology. 38 (4): 329–338. doi:10.1016/j.canep.2014.06.002. ISSN 1877-7821. PMID 24986642.
  66. ^ Visser, LH; Van Der Meché, FG; Meulstee, J; Rothbarth, PP; Jacobs, BC; Schmitz, PI; Van Doorn, PA (1996). "Cytomegalovirus infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome: the clinical, electrophysiologic, and prognostic features. Dutch Guillain-Barré Study Group". Neurology. 47 (3): 668–73. doi:10.1212/WNL.47.3.668. PMID 8797462. S2CID 71592645.
  67. ^ Clement, Oliva; Vázquez, Mauricio; Pérez, Elda; Magaña, Anastasia; Santillán, Marco; Briseño, Baltazar (2000). "Determinación de enterovirus en casos con diagnóstico de síndrome de Guillain-Barré mediante la utilización de la técnica de concentración ácida" [Enterovirus determination in cases with a diagnosis of the Guillain-Barré syndrome by using the acid-concentration technic]. Gaceta Médica de México (in Spanish). 136 (2): 93–7. PMID 10815319.
  68. ^ Sobieszczańska BM, Osek J, Waśko-Czopnik D, Dworniczek E, Jermakow K (April 2007). "Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome". Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 13 (4): 404–7. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2006.01669.x. PMID 17359324.
  69. ^ Scanu, Antonio M.; Bull, Tim J.; Cannas, Sara; Sanderson, Jeremy D.; Sechi, Leonardo A.; Dettori, Giuseppe; Zanetti, Stefania; Hermon-Taylor, John (2007). "Mycobacterium avium Subspecies paratuberculosis Infection in Cases of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Comparison with Crohn's Disease and Johne's Disease: Common Neural and Immune Pathogenicities". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 45 (12): 3883–90. doi:10.1128/JCM.01371-07. PMC 2168579. PMID 17913930.
  70. ^ Morken, Mette Helvik; Valeur, JøRgen; Norin, Elisabeth; Midtvedt, Tore; Nysæter, Gunnar; Berstad, Arnold (2009). "Antibiotic or bacterial therapy in post-giardiasis irritable bowel syndrome". Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 44 (11): 1296–303. doi:10.3109/00365520903274401. PMID 19821794. S2CID 35221422.
  71. ^ Stensvold, C. R.; Lewis, H. C.; Hammerum, A. M.; Porsbo, L. J.; Nielsen, S. S.; Olsen, K. E. P.; Arendrup, M. C.; Nielsen, H. V.; Mølbak, K. (2009). "Blastocystis: unravelling potential risk factors and clinical significance of a common but neglected parasite". Epidemiology and Infection. 137 (11): 1655–63. doi:10.1017/S0950268809002672. PMID 19393117. S2CID 38864528.
  72. ^ Johnson, E. H.; Windsor, J. J.; Clark, C. G. (2004). "Emerging from Obscurity: Biological, Clinical, and Diagnostic Aspects of Dientamoeba fragilis". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 17 (3): 553–70. doi:10.1128/CMR.17.3.553-570.2004. PMC 452553. PMID 15258093.
  73. ^ Albert HB, Sorensen JS, Christensen BS, Manniche C (April 2013). "Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy". Eur Spine J. 22 (4): 697–707. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y. PMC 3631045. PMID 23404353.
  74. ^ Albert HB, Lambert P, Rollason J, et al. (April 2013). "Does nuclear tissue infected with bacteria following disc herniations lead to Modic changes in the adjacent vertebrae?". Eur Spine J. 22 (4): 690–6. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2674-z. PMC 3631023. PMID 23397187.
  75. ^ a b c Aslanidis, S; Pyrpasopoulou, A; Kontotasios, K; Doumas, S; Zamboulis, C (2008). "Parvovirus B19 infection and systemic lupus erythematosus: Activation of an aberrant pathway?". European Journal of Internal Medicine. 19 (5): 314–8. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2007.09.013. PMID 18549931.
  76. ^ James, Judith A; Harley, John B; Scofield, R Hal (2006). "Epstein–Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus". Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 18 (5): 462–7. doi:10.1097/01.bor.0000240355.37927.94. PMC 3395176. PMID 16896283.
  77. ^ Rider, JR; Ollier, WE; Lock, RJ; Brookes, ST; Pamphilon, DH (1997). "Human cytomegalovirus infection and systemic lupus erythematosus". Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology. 15 (4): 405–9. PMID 9272302.
  78. ^ Lin, Ching-Yih; Su, Shih-Bin; Chang, Chih-Ching; Lee, Tsung-Ming; Shieh, Jiunn-Min; Guo, How-Ran (2009). "The Association Between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Metabolic Syndrome in Taiwanese Adults". Southern Medical Journal. 102 (12): 1203–8. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181c043d9. PMID 20016424. S2CID 6078949.
  79. ^ Nabipour, Iraj; Vahdat, Katayon; Jafari, Seyed; Pazoki, Raha; Sanjdideh, Zahra (2006). "The association of metabolic syndrome and Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus type 1: the Persian Gulf Healthy Heart Study". Cardiovascular Diabetology. 5: 25. doi:10.1186/1475-2840-5-25. PMC 1697801. PMID 17140429.
  80. ^ Haahr, Sven; Höllsberg, Per (2006). "Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection". Reviews in Medical Virology. 16 (5): 297–310. doi:10.1002/rmv.503. PMID 16927411. S2CID 30832378.
  81. ^ Mechelli R, Manzari C, Policano C, Annese A, Picardi E, Umeton R, Fornasiero A, D'Erchia AM, Buscarinu MC, Agliardi C, Annibali V, Serafini B, Rosicarelli B, Romano S, Angelini DF, Ricigliano VA, Buttari F, Battistini L, Centonze D, Guerini FR, D'Alfonso S, Pesole G, Salvetti M, Ristori G (2015). "Epstein-Barr virus genetic variants are associated with multiple sclerosis". Neurology. 84 (13): 1362–8. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001420. PMC 4388746. PMID 25740864.
  82. ^ Voumvourakis, Konstantine I.; Kitsos, Dimitrios K.; Tsiodras, Sotirios; Petrikkos, George; Stamboulis, Eleftherios (2010). "Human Herpesvirus 6 Infection as a Trigger of Multiple Sclerosis". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 85 (11): 1023–30. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0350. PMC 2966366. PMID 20926836.
  83. ^ Sotelo, Julio; Martínez-Palomo, Adolfo; Ordoñez, Graciela; Pineda, Benjamin (2008). "Varicella-zoster virus in cerebrospinal fluid at relapses of multiple sclerosis". Annals of Neurology. 63 (3): 303–11. doi:10.1002/ana.21316. PMID 18306233. S2CID 36489072.
  84. ^ Munger, Kassandra L.; Peeling, Rosanna W.; Hernán, Miguel A.; Chasan-Taber, Lisa; Olek, Michael J.; Hankinson, Susan E.; Hunter, David; Ascherio, Alberto (2003). "Infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis". Epidemiology. 14 (2): 141–7. doi:10.1097/01.EDE.0000050699.23957.8E. PMID 12606878. S2CID 29730230.
  85. ^ Arcari, Christine M.; Gaydos, Charlotte A.; Nieto, F. Javier; Krauss, Margot; Nelson, Kenrad E. (2005). "Association between Chlamydia pneumoniae and Acute Myocardial Infarction in Young Men in the United States Military: The Importance of Timing of Exposure Measurement". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 40 (8): 1123–30. doi:10.1086/428730. PMID 15791511. S2CID 11713973.
  86. ^ Gabrylewicz, Bogna; Mazurek, Urszula; Ochała, Andrzej; Sliupkas-Dyrda, Elektra; Garbocz, Piotr; Pyrlik, Andrzej; Mróz, Iwona; Wilczok, Tadeusz; Tendera, Michał (2003). "Zakażenie wirusem cytomegalii w świeżym zawale serca. Powiązania przyczynowo-skutkowe?" [Cytomegalovirus infection in acute myocardial infarction. Is there a causative relationship?]. Kardiologia Polska (in Polish). 59 (10): 283–92. PMID 14618212.
  87. ^ Andréoletti, Laurent; Ventéo, Lydie; Douche-Aourik, Fatima; Canas, Frédéric; De La Grandmaison, Geoffroy Lorin; Jacques, Jérôme; Moret, Hélène; Jovenin, Nicolas; et al. (2007). "Active Coxsackieviral B Infection Is Associated With Disruption of Dystrophin in Endomyocardial Tissue of Patients Who Died Suddenly of Acute Myocardial Infarction". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 50 (23): 2207–14. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.07.080. PMID 18061067.
  88. ^ Gaaloul, Imed; Riabi, Samira; Harrath, Rafik; Evans, Mark; Salem, Nidhal H; Mlayeh, Souheil; Huber, Sally; Aouni, Mahjoub (2012). "Sudden unexpected death related to enterovirus myocarditis: histopathology, immunohistochemstry and molecular pathology diagnosis at post-mortem". BMC Infectious Diseases. 12: 212. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-212. PMC 3462138. PMID 22966951.
  89. ^ Atkinson, R L; Dhurandhar, N V; Allison, D B; Bowen, R L; Israel, B A; Albu, J B; Augustus, A S (2004). "Human adenovirus-36 is associated with increased body weight and paradoxical reduction of serum lipids". International Journal of Obesity. 29 (3): 281–6. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802830. PMID 15611785.
  90. ^ Atkinson, Richard L.; Lee, Insil; Shin, Hye-Jung; He, Jia (2010). "Human adenovirus-36 antibody status is associated with obesity in children". International Journal of Pediatric Obesity. 5 (2): 157–60. doi:10.3109/17477160903111789. PMID 19593728.
  91. ^ McAllister, Emily; Dhurandhar, Nikhil; Keith, Scott; Aronne, Louis; Barger, Jamie; Baskin, Monica; Benca, Ruth; Biggio, Joseph; et al. (2009). "Ten Putative Contributors to the Obesity Epidemic". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 49 (10): 868–913. doi:10.1080/10408390903372599. PMC 2932668. PMID 19960394.
  92. ^ Fusinski, Keith A (2008). Adenovirus 36 E4orf1 gene induces differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells (PhD Dissertation). Wayne State University. ISBN 978-0-549-66718-6. Archived from the original on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
  93. ^ Vasilakopoulou, A; Le Roux, C W (2007). "Could a virus contribute to weight gain?". International Journal of Obesity. 31 (9): 1350–6. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803623. PMID 17420782. S2CID 9901450.
  94. ^ Atkinson, RL (2007). "Viruses as an etiology of obesity". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 82 (10): 1192–8. doi:10.4065/82.10.1192. PMID 17908526.
  95. ^ Ley, Ruth E.; Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Klein, Samuel; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (2006). "Microbial ecology: Human gut microbes associated with obesity". Nature. 444 (7122): 1022–3. Bibcode:2006Natur.444.1022L. doi:10.1038/4441022a. PMID 17183309. S2CID 205034045.
  96. ^ Mell, L. K.; Davis, RL; Owens, D (2005). "Association Between Streptococcal Infection and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Tourette's Syndrome, and Tic Disorder". Pediatrics. 116 (1): 56–60. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2058. PMID 15995031. S2CID 3263497.
  97. ^ Takahashi, M; Yamada, T (1999). "Viral etiology for Parkinson's disease--a possible role of influenza A virus infection". Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 52 (3): 89–98. doi:10.7883/yoken.52.89. PMID 10507986.
  98. ^ Miman, Ozlem; Kusbeci, Ozge Yilmaz; Aktepe, Orhan Cem; Cetinkaya, Zafer (2010). "The probable relation between Toxoplasma gondii and Parkinson's disease". Neuroscience Letters. 475 (3): 129–31. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.057. PMID 20350582. S2CID 5141917.
  99. ^ Qayoom, S; Ahmad, QM (2003). "Psoriasis and Helicobacter pylori". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 69 (2): 133–4. PMID 17642857.
  100. ^ Drake, Wonder Puryear; Newman, Lee S (2006). "Mycobacterial antigens may be important in sarcoidosis pathogenesis". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 12 (5): 359–63. doi:10.1097/01.mcp.0000239554.01068.94. PMID 16926652. S2CID 7043585.
  101. ^ Herndon, BL; Vlach, V; Dew, M; Willsie, SK (2004). "Helicobacter pylori-related immunoglobulins in sarcoidosis". Journal of Investigative Medicine. 52 (2): 137–43. doi:10.1136/jim-52-02-23. PMID 15068230. S2CID 206994992.
  102. ^ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2010). "The association of infectious agents and schizophrenia". World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 11 (5): 739–43. doi:10.3109/15622971003653246. PMID 20602604. S2CID 37312321.
  103. ^ Rantakallio, P; Jones, P; Moring, J; Von Wendt, L (1997). "Association between central nervous system infections during childhood and adult onset schizophrenia and other psychoses: a 28-year follow-up". International Journal of Epidemiology. 26 (4): 837–43. doi:10.1093/ije/26.4.837. PMID 9279617.
  104. ^ Brown, Alan S.; Begg, Melissa D.; Gravenstein, Stefan; Schaefer, Catherine A.; Wyatt, Richard J.; Bresnahan, Michaeline; Babulas, Vicki P.; Susser, Ezra S. (2004). "Serologic Evidence of Prenatal Influenza in the Etiology of Schizophrenia". Archives of General Psychiatry. 61 (8): 774–80. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.774. PMID 15289276.
  105. ^ Cook, PJ; Honeybourne, D; Lip, GY; Beevers, DG; Wise, R; Davies, P (1998). "Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers are significantly associated with acute stroke and transient cerebral ischemia: the West Birmingham Stroke Project". Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation. 29 (2): 404–10. doi:10.1161/01.STR.29.2.404. PMID 9472881.
  106. ^ Ponzetto, A; Marchet, A; Pellicano, R; Lovera, N; Chianale, G; Nobili, M; Rizzetto, M; Cerrato, P (2002). "Association of Helicobacter pylori infection with ischemic stroke of non-cardiac origin: the BAT.MA.N. project study". Hepato-gastroenterology. 49 (45): 631–4. PMID 12063957.
  107. ^ Sheu, J.-J.; Chiou, H.-Y.; Kang, J.-H.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Tuberculosis and the Risk of Ischemic Stroke: A 3-Year Follow-Up Study". Stroke. 41 (2): 244–9. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.567735. PMID 20035070.
  108. ^ Leonardi, S; Pavone, P; Rotolo, N; La Rosa, M (2005). "Stroke in two children with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. A causal or casual relationship?". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 24 (9): 843–5. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000177284.88356.56. PMID 16148858.
  109. ^ Kang, J.-H.; Ho, J.-D.; Chen, Y.-H.; Lin, H.-C. (2009). "Increased Risk of Stroke After a Herpes Zoster Attack: A Population-Based Follow-Up Study". Stroke. 40 (11): 3443–8. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.562017. PMID 19815828.
  110. ^ Cleary, J; Pearson, M; Oliver, J; Chapman, S (2008). "Association Between Histoplasma Exposure and Stroke". Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases. 17 (5): 312–9. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.01.015. PMID 18755412.
  111. ^ Fazeli, Bahare; Ravari, Hassan; Farzadnia, Mahdi (2011). "Does a species of Rickettsia play a role in the pathophysiology of Buerger's disease?". Vascular. 20 (6): 334–6. doi:10.1258/vasc.2011.cr0271. PMID 21803838. S2CID 22660338.[permanent dead link‍]
  112. ^ Hornig, Mady; Lipkin, W. Ian (2013). "Immune-mediated animal models of Tourette syndrome". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 37 (6): 1120–1138. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.007. ISSN 0149-7634. PMC 4054816. PMID 23313649.
  113. ^ Muller, N; Riedel, M; Blendinger, C; Oberle, K; Jacobs, E; Abelehorn, M (2004). "infection and Tourette's syndrome". Psychiatry Research. 129 (2): 119–25. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2004.04.009. PMID 15590039. S2CID 34398362.
  114. ^ Krause, Daniela; Matz, Judith; Weidinger, Elif; Wagner, Jenny; Wildenauer, Agnes; Obermeier, Michael; Riedel, Michael; Müller, Norbert (2009). "Association between intracellular infectious agents and Tourette's syndrome". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 260 (4): 359–63. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0084-3. PMID 19890596. S2CID 23636131.
  115. ^ "The Role of Chronic Disease in Higher Health Costs and Lower U.S. Economic Growth" (PDF). Almanac of Chronic Disease. Partnership to Fight Chronic Disease. 2009. p. 23.[permanent dead link‍]
  116. ^ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "PREFACE". In Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M; Najafi, Marjan (eds.). The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4.
  117. ^ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "SUMMARY AND ASSESSMENT". In Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M; Najafi, Marjan (eds.). The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4.
  118. ^ Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats (1 July 2004). "OVERVIEW". In Knobler, Stacey L; O'Connor, Siobhán; Lemon, Stanley M; Najafi, Marjan (eds.). The Infectious Etiology of Chronic Diseases: Defining the Relationship, Enhancing the Research, and Mitigating the Effects: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-309-08994-4.