Ijaw people

Ijaw
Ijo-Izon
Ijaw statue depicting "the many faces of your enemies"
Total population
4 million[1]
Regions with significant populations
Niger Delta
Languages
Ijaw languages
Religion
Christianity 90%
Islam 0.1%
Traditional 5%
Related ethnic groups
Ekpeye, Oron, Igbo, Ogoni, Isoko, Eleme.

The Ijaw people, also spelled Ịjọ,[2] are an ethnic group found in the Niger Delta region in Nigeria, with primary population clusters[3] in Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers.[4] They are also have significant population clusters in Edo,[5] Ondo[6][7] and small parts of Akwa Ibom[8] occupying six[9] Nigerian states.[10] Many are found as migrant fishermen in camps and settlements in Benue,[11] and Kogi states and as far west as Sierra Leone, Ghana[12] and as far east as Gabon. As of 2023, Nigeria's Ijaw population is estimated at around 4 million according to the CIA,[1] accounting for around 1.8% of the country's 223 million positioning them as the eighth largest ethnic group in Nigeria.[13][14] The Ijaws are one of the most populous tribes inhabiting the Niger Delta region, and one of the world's most ancient peoples.[15][16]

They have long lived in locations near many sea trade routes, and they were well connected to other areas by trade as early as the late 14th and early 15th centuries.[17][18] In their languages, they often refer to themselves using the endonym Izon.[19]

History

Origins

The Izon or Ijaw People have lived in the Niger Delta region since before the fifth millennium BCE, and they were able to keep a separate identity because they lived where the agriculturally dependent Benue-Kwa groups were unable to penetrate. Some of the earliest archeological findings of Ijaw tribes have been dated to as far back as the early 800s BCE.[20] The timeline that the archaeological excavations provide offers about 3,000 years of evidence of Ijaw history and presence in the Niger Delta.

There has been much argument about which tribe in Nigeria is the oldest. The Ijaws started inhabiting the Niger Delta region of what is now Nigeria as far back as 800 BCE,[21] thus making them one of the world's most ancient peoples.[21][22] They have existed as a distinct language and ethnic group for over 5,000 years.[23]

Agadagba-bou, the first ancient Ijaw city-state, existed for more than 400 years,[21] lasting until 1050 CE. Due to internal conflict and violent weather patterns, this city-state was abandoned. Some of the descendants of this city-state created another in the 11th century called Isoma-bou, which lasted until the 16th century. This city-state, like the last, was founded in the Central Delta Wilberforce Island region. The Wilberforce Island region remains the most Ijaw-populated area of Nigeria.

The Ijaws are believed by some to be the descendants of an autochthonous people or an ancient tribe of Africa known as the Oru; the Ijaws were originally known by this name (Oru).[15] These were believed to be the aboriginal people of West Africa and the region of Niger/Benue.

Development

Before the arrival of Europeans, the Ijo people had about 51 different clans and were trading amongst themselves. Their settlements in the Bini region, lower Niger and the Niger Delta were aboriginal (i.e. being the first). They are known to be exceptional sea people.[24]

In the 12th century, the number of Ijaw states grew, and by the 16th century, the Ijaws formed a number of powerful kingdoms with strong central rule. The Ijaw economy was predominantly supported by fishing, and each clustered group claimed a specific culture and autonomy from the others.

They were among the first people in Nigeria to come in contact with Europeans, the earliest explorers arriving in the early 15th century. After contact with European merchants around 1500 CE, communities began trading in enslaved people[25] as middlemen[26] while they also traded in palm oil. Traders who amassed wealth within this business market found themselves parading power over the government. Each trader purchased as many enslaved people as possible, valuing ability over genetic kinship as most enslaved people's families were split apart and not valued for their rich culture and heritage. Because an able enslaved person could inherit the business of a trader with no heir, it was possible to have (non-Ijaw) leaders who had been born into slavery; such a leader was King Jaja of Opobo.

The Ijaw People bought slaves[26] from Igboland, including Jubo Jubogha, an Igbo man, who was bought by the Ijo people of Bonny. He later earned his way out of slavery and was renamed Jaja.

Historically, various Ijaw clans engaged in the practice of acquiring slaves from Igboland for purposes such as gifting to newlyweds and showcasing wealth. However, the Ijaw's approach to slavery differed from many other cultures. They permitted slaves to earn their freedom after a specified period of service, and it was common for Ijaw men to marry enslaved women, granting them freedom through marriage. This practice facilitated social mobility and led to some Ijaw clans having remote Igbo ancestry due to these unions. Overall, the Ijaw's relatively limited participation in the slave trade reflects a more integrated and complex relationship between the two cultures.

The Nembe Ijo people were the first Ijaws to fight and win a battle against the Europeans. Though a short lived victory, a huge precedent was set by way of this.

King Frederick William Koko (Mingi VIII) of the Nembe-Brass Kingdom (1853–1898) led a successful attack on the British Royal Niger Company trading post in 1895.[27] King Koko also took over 40 British people as hostages,[28] whom he later allegedly ate. King Koko was offered a settlement for his grievances, but he  found the terms unacceptable. After some reprisal attacks by the British, his capital was ransacked. King Koko fled, and so was deposed by the British. He died in exile in 1898.

Language

Main article: Ijaw languages
Map showing Ijaw (Ijo) area in Nigeria

The Ijaws speak nine closely related Niger-Congo languages, all of which belong to the Ijoid branch of the Niger-Congo tree.[29] The primary division between the Ijo languages is that between Eastern Ijo and Central Ijo, the most important of the former group of languages being Izon, which is spoken by about nine million people.

There are two prominent groupings of the Ijaw language. The first, termed Central Izon (Ijaw) consists of central Ijaw speakers: Tuomo Clan, Egbema, Ekeremor, Sagbama (Ogobiri-Mein), Bassan, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma (Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei), Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma.[30] Nembe, Kalabari, Ibani, okrika, Ogbia, Brass and Akassa (Akaha) dialects represent South-eastern Ijo (Izon).[31] Buseni, Epie and Okordia dialects are considered Inland Ijo.[32]

It was discovered in the 1980s that a now extinct Berbice Creole Dutch, spoken in Guyana, is partly based on Ijo lexicon and grammar. Its nearest relative seems to be Eastern Ijo, most likely Kalabari.[33][34][35]

Clans

The Ijaw People can be grouped into three.

The first, which is termed as Central Ijaw (Ijo), consists of Central Ijaw languages and subgroups:

Ogbia subgroup and language, Epie-Atisa (Epie) subgroup and language, all part of Ijo people in  Bayelsa.

The centeal Ijaw Language, spoken by people in Ekeremor, Sagbama (Kumbo), Amassoma, Apoi, Arogbo, Boma (Bumo), Kabo (Kabuowei), Olodiama, Ogboin, Tarakiri, and Kolokuma-Opokuma, Tungbo, Tuomo, etc. all in Bayelsa.

Nembe Language, spoken by people in Nembe, Brass, and Akassa (Akaha) in Bayelsa.

Abua language, spoken by Abua/Odual people in Rivers State. Other Central subgroups are Biseni People, Akinima, Mbiama, Engeni and some subgroups in the Ahoda regions in Rivers State.

The second is the Eastern Ijaw (Ijo) found in Rivers[36] and Akwa Ibom States.

They include Kalabari (Abonnema, Buguma, Degema etc.), Okirika, Ogu, Opobo, Port Harcourt South, Bonny, Finima, Nkoro, Andoni, and Obolo people (part of Andoni) [37]), who can also be traced to Akwa Ibom State, near the border with Rivers State.

Third is the Western Ijaw (Ijo), found in Delta, Ondo and Edo states.

They can be found in Ondo state[38] due to migrations many years prior. The Arogbo Ijaws and the Western Apoi tribe of the Ijaw people live in Ondo State, Nigeria. The tribe (also called Ijaw Apoi or Apoi) consists of nine settlements: Igbobini, Ojuala, Ikpoke, Inikorogha, Oboro, Shabomi, Igbotu, Kiribo and Gbekebo.

The Apoi inhabited higher ground than most of the other Ijaw tribes. They speak the Yoruba language and Ijaw. They are bordered to the north by the Ikale and to the west by the Ilaje.[39] The clan also shares border with the Arogbo Ijaw[40] to the south of Ondo and the Furupagha Ijaw to the east across the Siloko River.

The founding ancestors of the Arogbo were part of the same migration from Ujo-Gbaraun town. After a brief stop at Oproza, led by Eji and his younger brother, Perebiyenmo and sister, Fiyepatei, they went on to Ukparomo (now occupied by the towns of Akpata, Opuba, Ajapa, and Ukpe). They stayed here for some time, about the length of the reign of two Agadagbas (military priest-rulers of the shrine of Egbesu). They then moved to the present site of Arogbo. From this place descendants spread out to found the Arogbo Ibe.

The Isaba, Kabo, Tuomo, Kumbo, Ogulagha, Patani, and Gbaramatu peoples of Delta state are also part of the Western Ijo subgroups.

In Edo state, the Ijo first settled in an area called Ikoro.[41] Their traditional rulers are called Peres and Agadagbas, and are thought to predate the Benin monarchy. 'Pere' means king in some of the Ijaw languages.[42]

Name State Alternate Names
Abureni Bayelsa
Akassa Bayelsa Akaha, Akasa
Andoni Rivers
Anyama Bayelsa
Apoi (Eastern) Bayelsa
Apoi (Western) Ondo
Arogbo Ondo
Bassan Bayelsa Basan
Bille Rivers Bile, Bili
Bumo Bayelsa Boma, Bomo
Buseni Bayelsa Biseni
Egbema Delta
Operemor Delta/Bayelsa Operemor, Ekeremo, Ojobo
Ekpetiama Bayelsa
Gbaramatu Delta Gbaramatu
Gbaran Bayelsa
Ibani Rivers
Iduwini Bayelsa/Delta
Isaba Delta
Kabo Delta Kabowei, Kabou
Kalabari Rivers
Ke Rivers Obiansoama, Kenan City
Kolo Creek Bayelsa
Kolokuma Bayelsa
Kou Bayelsa
Kula Rivers
Kumbo Delta Kumbowei
Mein Delta/Bayelsa
Nkoro Rivers Kirika, Nk City
Obotebe Delta
Odimodi Delta
Ogbe Delta Ogbe-Ijoh
Ogboin Bayelsa
Ogulagha Delta Ogula, Small London
Okrika Ogu Rivers Wakirike
Okordia Bayelsa Okodia, Akita
Olodiama (East) Bayelsa
Oloibiri Bayelsa
Opokuma Bayelsa
Oporoma Bayelsa Oporomo
Oruma Bayelsa Tugbene
Oyakiri Bayelsa Beni
Seimbiri Delta
Tarakiri (East) Bayelsa
Tarakiri (West) Delta
Tungbo Bayelsa
Tuomo Delta / Bayelsa

T.T Clan

Zarama Bayelsa
Unyeada Rivers Unyeada

Traditional occupations

An Ijaw mask

The Ijaws were one of the first of Nigeria's peoples to have contact with Westerners and were active as go-betweens in the trade between visiting Europeans and the peoples of the interior, particularly in the era before the discovery of quinine, when West Africa was still known as the "White Man's Graveyard"[44] because of the endemic presence of malaria, fever and heat.[45][46] Some of the kin-based trading lineages that arose among the Ijaws developed into substantial corporations which were known as "houses"; each house had an elected leader as well as a fleet of war canoes for use in protecting trade and fighting rivals. The other main occupation common among the Ijaws has traditionally been fishing and farming.[47][48]

Being a maritime people, many Ijaws were employed in the merchant shipping sector in the early and mid-20th century (pre-Nigerian Independence). With the advent of oil and gas exploration in their territory, some are now employed in that sector. Another major occupation is service in the civil service sector of the Nigerian states of Bayelsa and Rivers, where they are predominant.[49]

Extensive state-government sponsored overseas scholarship programs in the 1970s and 1980s have also led to a significant presence of Ijaw professionals in Europe and North America (the so-called Ijaw diaspora). Another contributing factor to this human capital flight is the abject poverty in their homeland of the Niger Delta, resulting from decades of neglect by the Nigerian government and oil companies in spite of continuous petroleum prospecting in this region since the 1950s.[50]

Lifestyle

The Ijaw people live by fishing supplemented by farming paddy-rice, plantains, Cassava, yams, cocoyams, bananas and other vegetables as well as tropical fruits such as guava, mangoes and pineapples; and trading. Smoke-dried fish, timber, palm oil and palm kernels are processed for export. While some clans (those to the east- Akassa, Nembe, Bille, Kalabari, Nkoro, Okrika, Andoni and Bonny) had powerful kings and a stratified society, some clans are believed not to have had any centralized confederacies until the arrival of the British. Individual communities in the western Niger Delta also had chiefs and governments at the village level.[51]

For women, there are traditional rights of passage throughout life, marked with iria ceremonies.[52]

Funeral ceremonies, particularly for those who have accumulated wealth and respect, are often very dramatic. Traditional religious practices center around "Water spirits" in the Niger river, and around tribute to ancestors.[53]

Marriages

Marriages among the Ijaw clans are vibrant, lively, and share many cultural similarities. The Ijaw traditional wedding ceremony is a grand celebration that showcases the beauty and diversity of Ijaw culture.

The marriage process typically culminates in the payment of a bridal dowry, which increases if the bride comes from a different village or a royal family. This additional dowry serves to compensate the bride's village for the loss of her children. Unlike many other ethnic groups, the Ijaws observe two distinct types of marriage.[54]

The first type of marriage, known as the small-dowry marriage, involves the groom making an initial payment to the bride’s family. This payment typically includes cash, traditional beads, and items such as a canoe and fabrics like Ankara, Hollandis, or George, among other items. However, the cash portion of the dowry is not paid in full upfront. When the bride’s father passes away, the groom is expected to pay the remaining cash balance as part of his contribution to the funeral expenses. In this marriage system, children trace their lineage through either their mother’s or father’s side, allowing them the freedom to choose which heritage, culture, and traditions they wish to follow as they grow older. They can identify with both parents' ethnic backgrounds and live with either family. This form of marriage is the most common and widely practiced across all Ijaw clans.[55]

The second type, known as the large-dowry marriage,[54] involves a significantly higher dowry, and in this case, the children are considered to belong to the father's family. However, this form of marriage rarely practiced.

A distinctive feature of the Ijaw traditional wedding ceremony is the bride’s expectation to remain composed and unemotional until she is fully satisfied with the gifts presented by the groom and his family. During this rite, the groom showers the bride with money and valuable items, and she only smiles once she is content with the gifts. This tradition serves as a test of the groom’s love and commitment, as he must prove his ability to provide for her and make her happy. It also serves as a challenge to the bride, demonstrating that she is not easily swayed by material wealth and values her dignity and pride.[56]

Another important aspect of the Ijaw wedding celebration is the Bibife, a feast hosted by the bride's family. This event includes lively music, dancing, and performances, marking the joyous union of the couple and celebrating their new life together.

Cultural attires

The traditional attire of the Ijaw people reflects both elegance and cultural significance, incorporating rich fabrics and intricate accessories that showcase their heritage.

For Ijaw men, the Etibo shirt serves as the main garment, typically made from materials like linen, cotton, or brocade. Its high neck and embroidery give it a distinguished look, often worn over a wrapper or trousers. The George wrapper, a long piece of luxurious fabric such as Hollandis or George, is tied around the waist and drapes elegantly to the ankles or knees, often adorned with intricate patterns. Men complete their look with a hat, such as a fedora or bowler, adding a touch of sophistication. They also carry a walking stick, typically made from wood and designed with intricate carvings, which adds an element of status. Coral beads in the form of necklaces and bracelets (called Ibolo) are often worn as accessories, symbolizing wealth and social standing.[57]

Ijaw women's traditional attire is equally stunning. The blouse is a loose-fitting, long-sleeved garment that is often richly embroidered. Paired with it are wrappers, typically two pieces made from Ankara, Hollandis, or George fabrics, which can be matched or contrasted with the blouse. The headgear, usually a stiff fabric head tie, is an essential part of the outfit, worn in various stylish formations to complement the blouse and wrappers. Like the men, women wear coral beads—necklaces, bracelets, and earrings—that denote both beauty and social status, completing the look.[58][57]

In addition to the Etibo, George, and other common attire, the Ijaw people also wear special traditional garments such as the Namatibi/Feni, Peletebite, Don, and Ojubulu attires. The Don outfit, in particular, holds royal significance. Historically, it was worn primarily by royals and high-ranking individuals. The Don ensemble was heavy on the body and featured an elaborate display of wealth, including a cache of jewels, expensive beads, gold studs, and other coral ornaments. This attire was completed with a stylish hat, further emphasizing the wearer's elevated status. The Don dress was not just a garment, but a powerful symbol of power, prestige, and the cultural heritage of the Ijaw people.

Together, these attires not only display the Ijaw people’s taste for elegance but also emphasize the importance of social hierarchy, beauty, and tradition within their culture. The different garments and accessories worn by both men and women reflect the rich history, cultural pride, and social standing that the Ijaw people continue to uphold.

Religion and cultural practices

Although the Ijaw are now primarily Christians (65% profess to be),[59] with Roman Catholicism, Zion Church, Anglicanism and Pentecostalism being the varieties of Christianity most prevalent among them, they also have elaborate traditional religious practices of their own.

Traditionally, the Ijaws hold celebrations to honour the spirits that last for several days. The highlight of these festivals is the role of masquerades.

Veneration of ancestors plays a central role in Ijaw traditional religion, while water spirits, known as Owuamapu, also figure prominently in the Ijaw pantheon. In addition, the Ijaw practice a form of divination called Igbadai, which involves recently deceased individuals being interrogated on the causes of their death. Ijaw religious beliefs hold that the owuamapu are like humans in having personal strengths and shortcomings, and that humans dwell among these water spirits before being born. The role of prayer in the traditional Ijaw system of belief is to maintain the living in the good graces of the owuamapu, among whom they dwelt before being born into this world, and each year the Ijaw hold celebrations to honour the spirits lasting for several days.

The Ijaw people are known for many of their cultural festivals and ceremonies. These festivals often involve wrestling, boat racing, and traditional dances.[60] Also central to the festivities is the role of masquerades, in which men wearing elaborate outfits and carved masks dance to the beat of drums and manifest the influence of the water spirits through the quality and intensity of their dancing. Particularly spectacular masqueraders are taken to actually be in the possession of the particular spirits on whose behalf they are dancing.[61]

Important deities in the Ijaw religion include Egbesu, whose totems are the leopard, panther, goat and lion, and who manifests as a god of war, protection and of justice.[62] Many of the Ijaws are warriors, and often offer veneration to Egbesu as a god of war as well. At the sound of the 'Asawana', the Ijaw warrior readies himself for war using Egbesu as a shield. One of Egbesu's prime laws is that an Ijaw person should not be the cause of the problem, or the one to start the fight, but should respond only when he or she must. This is a manifestation of the Ijaw virtue of patience.

There are also a small number of converts to Islam, the most notable being the founder of the Delta People Volunteer Force Mujahid Dokubo-Asari.

Notable leaders

[64]

Food customs

Like many ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Ijaws have many local foods that are not widespread in Nigeria. Many of these foods involve fish and other seafoods such as clams, oysters and periwinkles; yams and plantains. Some of these foods are:[65]

  • Polofiyai — A very rich soup made with yams and palm oil.
  • Kekefiyai— A pottage made with chopped unripened (green) plantains, fish, other seafood or game meat ("bushmeat") and palm oil.
  • Fried or roasted fish and plantain — Fish fried in palm oil and served with fried plantains.
  • Gbe — The grub of the raffia-palm tree beetle that is eaten raw, dried, fried in groundnut oil or pickled in palm oil.
  • Kalabari "sea-harvest" fulo— A rich mixed seafood soup or stew that is eaten with foofoo, rice or yams.
  • Owafiya (bean pottage) — A pottage made with Beans, palm oil, fish or bushmeat, Yam or Plantain. It is taken with processed Cassava or Starch.
  • Geisha soup — This a kind of soup cooked from the geisha fish; it is made with pepper, salt, water and boiling it for some minutes.
  • Opuru-fulou — Also referred to as prawn soup, prepared mainly with prawn, Ogbono (Irvingia gabonensis seeds), dried fish, table salt, crayfish, onions, fresh pepper, and red palm oil.
  • Yellow soup - Made with fresh fish (mostly catfish) and fresh pepper and red palm oil and thickened with garri or biscuits. Sometimes fresh tomatoes can be added to the soup, to thicken it and add additional flavour.
  • Onunu - Made with pounded yams and boiled overripe plantains. It is mostly enjoyed by the Okrikans[66]
  • Kiri-gina — Prepared without cooking on fire with Ogbono (Irvingia gabonensis seeds), dried fish, table salt, crayfish.[66][67]
  • Ignabeni — A watery soup prepared with either yam or plantain seasoned with teabush leaves, pepper, goat meat, and fish.[67]
  • Pilo-garri — A Bille meal mostly eaten during the raining season. It is prepared with dry garri, red palm oil, salt and eaten with roasted seafoods (fish, Isemi, Ngbe, Ikoli, etc.).
  • Igbugbai fiyai - A soup prepared without oil, only fish, onion, periwinkle, Bush leaves and other seafood. This soup, once prepared, is mostly eaten by Odimodi people.
  • Kpanfaranran [fry fiyai] A soup prepared by frying the palm oil before adding your fish, meat, crayfish, periwinkle, and other seafood. This food is mostly cooked by the Odimodi people.

Ethnic identity

Formerly organized into several loose clusters of villages or confederacies, the Ijaw people were autonomous groups that cooperated primarily for defense against outsiders. These groups were united by shared cultural practices and a common language, but each maintained its independence. Over time, however, the Ijaw increasingly view themselves as part of a single, coherent nation—the Izon Nation—bound together by language, culture, and shared history.[55]

This sense of unity has been significantly strengthened by the environmental degradations that have followed the exploitation of oil in the Niger Delta region, the ancestral homeland of the Ijaw. The region, rich in oil reserves, has suffered extensive environmental damage, including oil spills, gas flaring, and deforestation, which have had devastating effects on the local way of life. The Ijaw have also been frustrated by a revenue-sharing formula with the Nigerian Federal Government, which they perceive as unjust, with a disproportionate share of the nation's wealth flowing to other regions while the Niger Delta remains impoverished and environmentally degraded. These grievances have fueled a growing sense of injustice and have been a catalyst for numerous high-profile clashes with the Nigerian authorities, including kidnappings, protests, and violent confrontations. In many of these incidents, lives have been lost, and the Ijaw people's struggle for fairness and recognition has drawn both national and international attention.[68][69][70]

The Ijaw people are resilient and proud, with a deep historical connection to the land and water. Long before the colonial era, the Ijaw were known for their seafaring abilities, traveling by wooden boats and canoes to distant lands, including Cameroon, Ghana, and other parts of West Africa. They navigated the vast rivers of the region, including traveling up the River Niger from the River Nun, a significant waterway that continues to hold cultural and spiritual importance. The Ijaw’s maritime skills and extensive trade networks are a testament to their adaptability, resourcefulness, and the depth of their cultural heritage, which endures despite the challenges they face today.[55][71]

Ijaw–Itsekiri conflicts

Main article: Warri Crisis

One manifestation of ethnic violence on the part of the Ijaw has been an increase in the number and severity of clashes between Ijaw militants and those of Itsekiri origin, particularly in the town of Warri.[72]

Deadly conflicts had rocked the South-South region, especially in Delta State, where intertribal killings had resulted in death on both sides.[73] [74] In July 2013, local police discovered mutilated corpses of 13 Itsekiris killed by Ijaws, over a dispute on a candidate for a local council chairman. Several Itsekiri villages, including Gbokoda, Udo, Ajamita, Obaghoro and Ayerode-Zion on the Benin river axis, were razed down while several Itsekiris lost their lives.[75]

Oil conflict

Main article: Nigerian Oil Crisis

The December 1998 All Ijaw Youths Conference crystallized the struggle with the formation of the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) and the issuing of the Kaiama Declaration. In it, long-held Ijaw concerns about the loss of control of their homeland and their own lives to the oil companies were joined with a commitment to direct action. In the declaration, and in a letter to the companies, the Ijaws called for oil companies to suspend operations and withdraw from Ijaw territory. The IYM pledged “to struggle peacefully for freedom, self-determination and ecological justice,” and prepared a campaign of celebration, prayer, and direct action 'Operation Climate Change' beginning December 28, 1998.[76]

In December 1998, two warships and 10–15,000 Nigerian troops occupied Bayelsa and Delta states as the Ijaw Youth Movement (IYM) mobilized for Operation Climate Change. Soldiers entering the Bayelsa state capital of Yenagoa announced they had come to attack the youths trying to stop the oil companies. On the morning of December 30, 1998, two thousand young people processed through Yenagoa, dressed in black, singing and dancing. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. After a march demanding the release of those detained was turned back by soldiers, three more protesters were shot dead. The head of Yenagoa rebels - Chief Oweikuro Ibe - was burned alive in his mansion on December 28, 1998. Amongst his family members to flee the premises before the complete destruction was his only son, Desmond Ibe. The military declared a state of emergency throughout Bayelsa state, imposed a dusk-to-dawn curfew, and banned meetings. At military roadblocks, local residents were severely beaten or detained. At night, soldiers invaded private homes, terrorizing residents with beatings and women and girls with rape.[77]

On January 4, 1999, about one hundred soldiers from the military base at Chevron’s Escravos facility attacked Opia and Ikiyan, two Ijaw communities in Delta State. Bright Pablogba, the traditional leader of Ikiyan, who came to the river to negotiate with the soldiers, was shot along with a seven-year-old girl and possibly dozens of others. Of the approximately 1,000 people living in the two villages, four people were found dead and sixty-two were still missing months after the attack. The same soldiers set the villages ablaze, destroyed canoes and fishing equipment, killed livestock, and destroyed churches and religious shrines.[78]

Nonetheless, Operation Climate Change continued, and disrupted Nigerian oil supplies through much of 1999 by turning off valves through Ijaw territory. In the context of high conflict between the Ijaw and the Nigerian Federal Government (and its police and army), the military carried out the Odi massacre, killing scores if not hundreds of Ijaws.[79]

Recent actions by Ijaws against the oil industry have included both renewed efforts at nonviolent action and militarized attacks on oil installations but with no human casualties to foreign oil workers despite hostage-takings. These attacks are usually in response to non-fulfilment by oil companies of memoranda of understanding with their host communities.[80]

Notable people

Ijaw organisations

  • Oporoza Ware (House)
  • Andoni Forum USA (AFUSA)
  • Ijaw Youth Council (IYC)
  • Ijaw National Congress (INC)[85]
  • Kabowei Forum
  • Ijaw Nation Forum (INF)
  • Ijaw Elders Forum
  • Ijaw Youth Congress
  • Congress of Niger Delta Youths
  • National Union of Izon-Ebe Students
  • MOSIEND
  • Ijaw Women Connect (IWC)
  • Tuomo Youth Congress
  • Sagbama Youth Movement
  • Ekine Sekiapu Ogbo
  • Bomadi Decides
  • Bayelsa Youths Council
  • The Ogbia brotherhood
  • Izon Progressive Congress (IPC)
  • Ogbinbiri Progressive Movement
  • Egbema Youths Progressive Agenda
  • Progressive Youth Leadership Foundation (ND-PYLF)
  • Ijaw Nation Development Group (Ijaw Peoples Assembly)
  • Izon Ladies Association (ILA)
  • Indigenous people of Niger Delta IPND
  • National Association Of Ogulagha Clan Students (NAOCS)
  • National Association of Burutu Local Government Students (NABLOGS) Worldwide

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Other sources

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