February 2, 1943: The Soviet Union retakes Stalingrad as 462 day fight endsFebruary 13, 1943: The Corsair begins combat operationsFebruary 20, 1943: Volcano appears in MexicoFebruary 24, 1943: In North Africa, the U.S. Army recovers after being defeated by Germany's Afrika Corps
February 1, 1943 (Monday)
The 442nd Infantry Regiment, whose soldiers were Nisei (Americans of Japanese ancestry), was created by order of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. "No natural citizen of the United States," said the President, "should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry." Most Nisei in the mainland United States were still kept in internment camps at the time.[1]
Japanese forces on Guadalcanal began the actual withdrawal phase of Operation Ke. The Americans mistakenly believed the naval activity signaled a new offensive and put up little opposition.[2]
Died:Sir Rao Ganga Singh, 62, British Indian General, the only non-white member of the Imperial War Cabinet constituted by Britain during World War One, and the penultimate Maharaja of Bikaner
February 3, 1943 (Wednesday)
The U.S. troop transport Dorchester, with 904 men on board, was torpedoed 150 miles off of the coast of Greenland by the German submarine U-233. Among the 605 people who died were the "Four Chaplains"— Methodist minister George L. Fox, Reformed Church in America minister Clark V. Poling, Roman Catholic priest John P. Washington, and Rabbi Alexander D. Goode— who helped others evacuate into lifeboats, gave up their lifejackets, and then went down with the ship. Other victims died of hypothermia in the icy waters. Another 299 were saved by the U.S. Coast Guard cutters Escanaba and Comanche. The "retriever" method of rescue was used for the first time, as swimmers from the Escanaba donned wet suits to reach those victims who were too exhausted to climb aboard rescue lifeboats.[5]
With the British Eighth Army's success in its African campaign, the remaining German forces in modern-day Libya, along with their commander, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, withdrew across the border into French Tunisia, where they would be defeated in May.[7]
The German submarine U-187 was depth charged and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by British destroyers.
Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini fired his Foreign Minister, Count Galeazzo Ciano, who was also Mussolini's son-in-law, along with most of the other cabinet ministers. The new Foreign Minister was Mussolini himself, who also held the posts of Interior Minister, War Minister, and Air Minister.[8]
U.S. Army Air Forces Lt. General Frank M. Andrews was named as the new commander of all U.S. forces in Europe, taking over a command formerly held by Lt. General Eisenhower, who had also commanded U.S. forces in Europe and North Africa.[9] Lt. General Andrews would be killed in a plane crash less than three months later, on May 3, 1943.[10]
At a meeting between shoe manufacturers and U.S. Army generals, Lt. Col. Georges Doriot (who would pioneer the business of venture capital) persuaded General George Marshall to approve the acquisition of a more durable type of combat boot for American soldiers. At the time, the average lifespan of the existing U.S. Army boots was only 13 days.[11]
The arrest of 600 students was conducted on campuses across the Netherlands by the occupying German forces, after a fatally wounded Nazi officer said that he had been shot by students. The 600 were deported to the Herzogenbusch concentration camp near Vught. Another 1,200 were arrested and deported a few days later.[12]
Field Marshal Erich von Manstein flew to see Adolf Hitler seeking permission to fall back on the Eastern Front. Hitler agreed to allow German forces to withdraw to new defensive positions along the Mius River.[2]
Lt. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was named commander of the Allied armies in the African theater of operations (Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco), based on a decision made by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill at Casablanca. Previously, Eisenhower's command was limited to U.S. forces in North Africa.[13]
The Canadian corvette Louisburg was bombed and sunk off Oran, Algeria by Italian aircraft.
A Los Angeles court acquitted the movie star Errol Flynn of three rape charges.[14]
Born:Fabian (Fabiano Anthony Forte), American singer and teen idol; in Philadelphia
February 7, 1943 (Sunday)
Operation Ke was completed when the remaining 10,000 Japanese troops on the island of Guadalcanal were secretly evacuated to rescuing ships "before U.S. forces realized what had occurred".[15] The "Japanese Dunkirk" during the Guadalcanal Campaign was accomplished by deceiving U.S. intelligence into believing that the ships were arriving to bring in reinforcements for a new attack.[16]
German FührerAdolf Hitler brought top-ranking officials of both Germany and the Nazi Party to his headquarters to reassure them despite the devastating defeat suffered on the Russian front. One of Hitler's aides, Nicolaus von Below, would later recall that Hitler's speech was so inspiring that the officials were "obviously relieved" and came away believing that Germany could still win World War II. Records of the meeting showed that Hitler said, "Either we will be the master of Europe, or we will experience a complete liquidation and extermination," and pledged a total war against the remaining Jewish people in Germany, and the "international Jews" who, in his view, forged an alliance between capitalists and Communists.[17]
Died:Howard W. Gilmore, 40, American U.S. Navy Commander, in an act for which he posthumously received the Medal of Honor. Gilmore was in the conning tower of the submarine USS Growler when it came under attack from the Japanese gunboat Hayasaki. Wounded by gunfire, and unable to climb down the hatch, Gilmore ordered the submarine to submerge, despite the certainty that he would drown, in order for his shipmates to escape destruction.[19]
February 8, 1943 (Monday)
"An eager schoolboy gets his first experience in using War Ration Book Two. With many parents engaged in war work, children are being taught the facts of point rationing for helping out in family marketing.", 02/1943
After touring Germany as a guest of the Third Reich to give anti-British speeches, Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose and his assistant, Abid Hasan, were given safe passage from Kiel by the German submarine U-180.[20]
The U.S. Territory of Hawaii, under American military authority since the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, was partially restored to civilian control by its Military Governor, Lt. General Delos Emmons, with the decree taking effect on March 10. The Territorial Legislature, absent its nine Japanese-American members, reassembled on February 17 for the first time in more than a year.[21]
German forces, retreating from the Soviet Union, liquidated the remaining Jews in the Byelorussian S.S.R. city of Slutsk. Commander Eduard Strauch directed his soldiers from Minsk to oversee the deportation of the remaining 4,000 Jews.[22]
U.S. Economic Stabilization Director James F. Byrnes ordered a temporary ban on the sale of shoes until Tuesday, when rationing would begin. Starting February 10 and at least through June 15, one pair of shoes could be purchased only by using "Stamp No. 17 in war ration book No. 1", which previously applied only to sugar and coffee. House slippers, ballet slippers and baby shoes were exempt from the order because their production was not affected by the limited supply of leather.[24][25]
Wiley B. Rutledge was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a new Justice of the United States Supreme Court by voice vote, despite the opposition of Senator William Langer of North Dakota.[26] Rutledge would serve for only six years before dying of a stroke at the age of 55 in 1949.[27]
Born:
Creed Bratton (stage name for William Charles Schneider), American actor and musician; in Los Angeles
"Tokyo Express no longer has a terminus on Guadalcanal" was the nine-word message sent by U.S. Army Major General Alexander Patch to U.S. Navy Admiral William Halsey, Jr., as the strategic South Pacific island was recaptured from Japan.[29] During the six month fight, the Japanese lost 24,000 killed, while the U.S. sustained 1,653 deaths.[30]
With 1,481 people aboard (1,283 troops and 198 crew), the Japanese Imperial Navy ship Tatsuta Maru, an ocean liner converted to military use, was torpedoed and sunk east of Mikura-jima, by the American submarine USS Tarpon.[31]
Mrs. Vesta Stoudt, an ordnance factory worker from Sterling, Illinois, and the mother of two sons who were in the U.S. Navy, wrote to President Roosevelt with her idea for what would become duct tape, which she described as "a strong cloth tape" that had a waterproof wax coating, designed to seal boxes of ammunition, but that could also be opened quickly. Stoudt had been unable to persuade her supervisors at the Green River Ordnance Plant that it would be an improvement over thin paper tape.[34] Roosevelt liked the idea and on March 26, 1943, the War Production Board would inform Mrs. Stoudt that it had approved the idea.[35]
The year-long Battle of Timor ended with a Japanese tactical victory, but an Allied strategic victory.
A striking new development provided a new burst of political activity in British India. Mohandas Gandhi, imprisoned in British India, started hunger strike [fast] on 10 February in jail. He declared the fast would last for twenty-one days. This was his answer to the Government and specially Viceroy Lord Linlithgow which had been constantly exhorting him to condemn the violence of the people in the Quit India Movement. Gandhi not only refused to condemn the people's resort to violence but unequivocally held the Government responsible for it. It was the 'leonine violence' of the state which had provoked the people, he said. And it was against this violence of the state, which included the unwarranted detention of thousands of Congressmen, that Gandhi vowed to register his protest, in the only way open to him when in jail, by fasting.[37] The Viceroy decided that if Gandhi fasted, he would be allowed to die. But fast was to create moral support and create pressure thus as planned Gandhi's fast ceased after 21 days, he remained imprisoned until May 6, 1944.[38]
February 11, 1943 (Thursday)
The Soviet Union began its nuclear weapons research program, by State Defense Committee resolution signed by Josef Stalin. Physicist Igor Kurchatov was appointed as the program's director.[39]
U.S. Army Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower was promoted to the four-star rank for the first time.[40] Coincidentally, Nikita Khrushchev, who would lead the Soviet Union at the same time that Dwight Eisenhower was President of the U.S., was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General in the Soviet Army the next day.[41]
Died:Bess Houdini (stage name for Wilhelmina Rahner Weiss), 67, wife and stage assistant to magician Harry Houdini
February 12, 1943 (Friday)
In a nationwide radio address, U.S. President Roosevelt related the agreements made at the Casablanca Summit, and plans to win the war against the Axis powers. Roosevelt said, in a reference that the Cold War would prove to be true, that "the Axis propagandists are trying all of their old tricks in order ... to create the idea that if we win this war, Russia, England, China, and the United States are going to get into a cat-and-dog fight."[42]
Maliq Bushati was appointed as the Prime Minister of Albania by the Italian occupying authorities. He would be replaced after only three months; after the war, he would be executed for collaborating with the Axis.[44]
February 13, 1943: The U.S. Marines begin recruiting women
The Vought F4U Corsair was first used in combat, with the fast single engine fighters being used by the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps to fly missions from Guadalcanal. The Corsair planes "flew 64,051 combat missions" and "shot down 2,139 enemy aircraft" during the remaining two and a half years of World War II.[47]
Uruguay was returned to democracy as the nation's Congress convened for the first time since President Alfredo Baldomir had replaced the legislature with a Council of State.[50]
Operation Gunnerside, a secret mission for the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), was carried out by six Norwegian paratroopers led by Joachim Ronneburg who were dropped into German-occupied Norway, near Skrykenvann.[51] The location was 30 miles from the Norsk Hydro plant at Vemork, where the Germans were creating heavy water (deuterium oxide) as part of the early stages of a nuclear weapons program. Specially trained for demolition, the six agents carried plastic explosives, a shortwave radio, and skis, which they used to meet with an advance team and then to proceed to Vemork where they would carry out their mission on February 24.[52]
Heinrich Himmler, the Reichsführer of the Nazi SS, ordered that there were to be no further deportations of elderly Jews from the ghetto in Theresienstadt (now Terezín in the Czech Republic), which had been officially declared as a place where "the old could live and die in peace". For the next seven months, no Jews, of any age, in Theresienstadt were taken to concentration camps.[53]
Italian soldiers began the two-day Domenikon massacre in Greece, executing a total of 175 male civilians.
The American submarine Amberjack was depth charged and sunk off Rabaul by a Japanese aircraft and ships.
Mildred Harnack, a 41-year-old American citizen and Milwaukee native who was convicted of espionage against Germany, was executed by guillotine at the Plötzensee Prison, on the personal orders of Adolf Hitler.[54]
Hitler flew to Manstein's headquarters in Zaporizhia with the intention of dismissing him over his suggestion to appoint an overall chief of staff, but soon became too engrossed in the crisis facing Army Group South when Manstein argued that it could not possibly defend the entire line. After two days of discussions an agreement was reached for Manstein to draw troops from Army Group A and launch a counterattack on his northern flank, which would result in the Third Battle of Kharkov.[55]
Russian pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff gave his last concert, performing in Knoxville, Tennessee, and then cancelled the remainder of his tour of American universities. Too ill to keep a February 22 date in New Orleans, Rachmaninoff, who had become an American citizen on February 1, returned to his Los Angeles home. He was diagnosed with melanoma, and the cancer had spread to his bone marrow, his liver and his lungs. Rachmaninoff would die on March 28.[56]
The German submarines U-69 and U-201 were both sunk by British destroyers in the Atlantic Ocean, while U-205 was sunk in the Mediterranean by destroyer HMS Paladin.
Alexander Mach, the Interior Minister of the Nazi-sponsored Slovak Republic, announced that deportation of the 15,000 remaining Jews, and an additional 10,000 who had converted to Christianity, would begin in March. Deportations had been halted for two years after payment of bribes to SS official Dieter Wisliceny.[57]
Major League Baseball star Joe DiMaggio, whose draft eligibility was deferred because of his 3A classification, enlisted in the United States Army. One biographer would note that "unlike fellow major leaguers Bob Feller, Cecil Travis, Warren Spahn and others, he never ventured anywhere near the battlefield" and spent the war playing baseball for the Seventh Army Air Force team.[58]
Died:
Wiktor Alter, 53, Polish labor activist, was executed in the Soviet Union on false charges of spying for Germany
George Keogan, 52, American college basketball coach and Hall of Fame inductee died of a heart attack, two days after the Fighting Irish team's 55 to 37 win over Canisius College in Buffalo, New York to increase the team's record to 12 wins and 1 loss.[59][60]
Hans Scholl and Sophie Scholl, two students in the White Rose movement that was secretly distributing anti-Hitler literature, were captured at the University of Munich after a maintenance man saw them throwing leaflets from a campus building. After witnessing the act, Jakob Schmied detained the brother and sister, then called the Gestapo. Four days later, the Scholls, and another White Rose student, were tried, convicted and executed for treason.[64][65]
Soong Mei-ling, popularly known as "Madame Chiang Kai-shek" as the wife of China's president, became the first private citizen (and only the second woman) to address the U.S. Congress. Rather than speaking to a joint session, Madame Chiang gave a prepared speech to the Senate, and then an improvised speech to the House.[66]
U.S. President Roosevelt approved the extension of the Lend-Lease Program for the first American financial aid to the oil rich kingdom of Saudi Arabia, after being advised that geologists had concluded that the Saudi kingdom had the largest oil fields in the world.[67]
Under continued demands from Nazi Germany, the Japanese Empire followed the Nazi example of confining Jewish residents to a specific area, and set up the Shanghai ghetto, with a two square mile area in the Hongkou District to house 20,000 refugees from Germany, Austria and Poland. Over the next three months, the European Jews had been relocated to Hongkou, along with Chinese people whom Japan wanted to keep under surveillance.[69]
Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll broadcast the final episode of their popular NBC Blue Network radio program, the original Amos 'n' Andy. In the original format, the two white comedians voiced African-American dialect not only for the title characters, but for most of the other roles as well. The new version would debut in the fall, with a live audience, and Gosden and Correll joined by a cast of African-American supporting actors.[70]
The first "flight nurse" recruits, for the United States Army Nurse Corps, were certified after completing their training at Bowman Field in Louisville, Kentucky. The job of a flight nurse was to render aid to wounded soldiers being transported by the Air Evacuation Units of the U.S. Army Air Force.[72]
At 4:30 pm local time, the Mexican volcano Parícutin broke the surface of a cornfield owned by farmer Dionisio Pulido, and began increasing in size through ash, stone and rock. By the next morning, the volcanic mound was already 30 feet high. At the end of the week, Parícutin — named for a nearby village in the state of Michoacán — had reached 400 feet and was sending material half a mile into the sky. Within a year, after the Parícutin village was evacuated, the volcano was 1,100 feet tall and would peak at 2,000 feet.[73] After nine years and five days of smoke and lava flows, Parícutin would suddenly cease on February 25, 1952.[74]
The Japanese destroyer Ōshio was torpedoed off Wewak, New Guinea by American submarine Albacore and sank under tow.
In Operation Cleanslate, having secured Guadalcanal, American forces of the 43rd Infantry Division (some 10,000 men) invaded the Russell Islands, with the 103rd and 169th regiments, and members of the 11th Defense Battalion, landing on Mbanika Island, and the 3rd Marine Raider Battalion coming ashore on Pavuvu.[75] Although a fierce battle had been expected, the Japanese defenders had already been withdrawn and the islands were taken by the U.S. without a fight.[76]
The German submarine U-623 was depth charged and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by a B-24 of No. 120 Squadron RAF.
A nationwide day of prayer was held in India for Mahatma Gandhi, whose fasting was putting his life in danger.[14]
The first three student members of the White Rose resistance group were executed by the Nazi government at the Stadelheim Prison near Munich. Christoph Probst, 23; Hans Scholl, 24; and his sister Sophie Scholl, 21, were all beheaded by guillotine, four days after their arrest for distributing anti-war leaflets at the University of Munich. The article in the Munich newspaper Neueste Nachrichten later that day reported that "the condemned persons shamelessly committed offenses against the armed security of the nation and the will to fight of the German people by defacing houses with slogans attacking the state, and by distributing treasonous leaflets".[64][77]
Alexander Belev, the Bulgarian Minister of Jewish Affairs, signed an agreement with Gestapo representative Theodor Dannecker to deliver 20,000 Bulgarian Jews to German labor camps. From the recently annexed territories of Western Thrace (Bati Trakya) and Macedonia (Makedoniya), Belev would oversee the removal of 23,000 Jews to Treblinka extermination camp and Auschwitz.[78] Arrangements would be made for another 8,555 to be deported from the Kingdom of Bulgaria, a move which was successfully resisted by the Kingdom's parliament.[79]
Pan American World Airways Flight 9035, flying from New York City to Lisbon, crashed while attempting to land. Twenty-five of the 39 people on board were killed, most of them on tour for the USO to entertain American troops in Europe, were killed when the Boeing 314A seaplane, nicknamed the "Yankee Clipper", went down into the Tagus River. Jane Froman was one of the fifteen seriously injured survivors.[80]
Died:Alfred Nossig, 78, Polish sculptor and German sympathizer suspected of supplying reports to Germany about Jewish residents of the Warsaw Ghetto, was shot to death by orders of the underground Jewish resistance group, the ZOB.[81]
February 23, 1943 (Tuesday)
The 1943 steel penny
The first "steel pennies" were manufactured in the United States. Because of the need for copper to be used for the war effort, the one cent piece was made of steel with a thin zinc plating to prevent rust. After being put into circulation on February 27, the new pennies were mistaken for dimes, and were not accepted in machines that had magnets to catch slugs. The unpopular coins were discontinued at the end of the year.[82]
The German submarine U-443 was depth charged and sunk off Algiers by British destroyers, and the U-522 was depth charged and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean by British cutter Totland.
The new British submarine HMS Vandal disappeared during sea trials, along with its crew of 37, only four days after it had been commissioned. After departing Lochranza on the Scottish Isle of Arran, the Vandal submerged and never resurfaced.[84] The submarine would remain missing for more than half a century until its rediscovery on June 26, 1994.[85]
First major protest march in Athens against rumours of forced mobilization of Greek workers for work in Germany, resulting in clashes with the Axis occupation forces and collaborationist police. Demonstrators attack the Labour Ministry and burn its files.[86][87]
February 25, 1943 (Thursday)
The Allies started their new strategy of "round-the-clock bombing" as USAAF planes bombed Germany in the daytime while the RAF struck at night. Over the next two days, over 2,000 sorties would strike German targets.[88]
The Latvian SS Volunteer Division was formed, with three infantry regiments in Latvia fighting on the side of Germany in hopes of winning back independence from the Soviet Union.[89]
The Zigeunerlager, a section of the Auschwitz concentration camp that was intended to segregate Gypsy families from other minorities marked for extermination, received its first group of deportees. In three successive actions, the 5,100 residents were murdered, beginning with the elimination of 1,700 on March 22.[90]
Germany successfully completed Operation Hornung in the Byelorussian SSR (now Belarus), and launched Operation Ochsenkopf, a new offensive, in Tunisia.
In Operation Gunnerside, the Norsk Hydro plant at Vermok in Norway, being used by the Nazi German nuclear research program, was successfully sabotaged by Norwegian SOE commandos. The team used skis to reach the plant, entered through a service tunnel, and placed timed explosive charges on the tanks of heavy water and the electrolysis chambers needed to produce the deuterium oxide liquid, and escaped. The blasts destroyed the entire inventory of the heavy water that had been produced by the Germans.[52]
A 1,000 bomber RAF and U.S. Army Air Force bombing raid against Saint-Nazaire dropped 4.5 million pounds of explosive and incendiary bombs on the German U-boat bases in Nazi occupied France, and killed 479 people.[95]
^Muller, Eric L. Free to Die for Their Country: The Story of the Japanese American Draft Resisters in World War II (University of Chicago Press, 2003) p.41; Ng, Wendy L. Japanese American Internment During World War II: A History and Reference Guide (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002) p.56
^Fiona Reynoldson, Key Battles of World War II (Capstone Classroom, 2001) p35
^"Mussolini Drops Ciano From Cabinet", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 6, 1943, p1
^"Andrews Named U.S. Commander for Europe", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, February 6, 1943, p1
^Spencer Tucker, U.S. Leadership in Wartime: Clashes, Controversy, and Compromise (ABC-CLIO, 2009) pp 583–584
^Spencer E. Ante, Creative Capital: Georges Doriot and the Birth of Venture Capital (Harvard Business Press, 2008) pp 95–96; Shelby L. Stanton, U.S. Army Uniforms of World War II (Stackpole Books, 1995) p242
^Mark Klempner, The Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers And Their Stories of Courage (Pilgrim Press, 2006) pp 73–74
^"Baton Is Given to Eisenhower", Milwaukee Journal, February 7, 1943, p1
^ abcMercer, Derrik, ed. (1989). Chronicle of the 20th Century. London: Chronicle Communications Ltd. p. 579. ISBN978-0-582-03919-3.
^"Guadalcanal (August 1942 – February 1943)", in Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia Stanley Sandler, ed. (ABC-CLIO, 2002) p344
^Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge University Press, 2005) p344
^Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe (Random House Digital, 2009) pp 525–526
^Bernard Ireland, Battle of the Atlantic (Naval Institute Press, 2003) p122
^ abWilliam Stevenson, A Man Called Intrepid (Globe Pequot, 2000) p425
^Nicholas Stargardt, Witnesses of War: Children's Lives Under the Nazis (Random House Digital, 2006)
^"Harnack, Mildred Fish", in Germany and the Americas (ABC-CLIO, 2005) p485
^Griess, Thomas E., ed. (2002). The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean. Square One Publishers. pp. 139–140. ISBN978-0-7570-0160-4.
^Robert Cunningham, Sergei Rachmaninoff: A Bio-Bibliography (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001) p6; David Wallace, Exiles in Hollywood (Hal Leonard Corporation, 2006) pp 146–147
^David Cymet, History vs. Apologetics: The Holocaust, the Third Reich, and the Catholic Church (Lexington Books, 2012) pp 328–329
^David Jones, Joe DiMaggio: A Biography (Greenwood Publishing, 2004)
^"Dynamic Irish Basketeers Peak, Too Much Power for Canisius". Buffalo (NY) News. February 17, 1943.
^"Nation, Rise Up, and Let the Storm Break Loose", Goebbels speech transcript, German Propaganda Archive, Calvin University; Hein A.M. Klemann and Sergei Kudryashov, Occupied Economies: An Economic History of Nazi-Occupied Europe, 1939–1945 (Berg, 2011) p9
^ abInge Scholl, The White Rose: Munich, 1942–1943 (Wesleyan University Press, 2011); René Spitz, Hfg Ulm: The View Behind the Foreground (Edition Axel Menges, 2002) p42
^K. Scott Wong, Americans First: Chinese Americans and the Second World War (Harvard University Press, 2005) p96
^Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (Simon and Schuster, 2008) p379
^F. G. Gosling, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb (Government Printing Office, 1999) p22
^David S. Wyman and Charles H. Rosenzveig, The World Reacts to the Holocaust (Johns Hopkins University Press, Sep 30, 1996) p567
^"Amos 'n' Andy", in Encyclopedia of Radio, Christopher H. Sterling, ed. (Taylor & Francis, 2003) p128
^Hayward, J. (1998). Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East, 1942–1943, pp. 130–131. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN978-0-7006-1146-1.
^Barbara Brooks Tomblin, G.I. Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (University Press of Kentucky, 2003) p62
^Dennis Fradin and Judith Fradin, Witness to Disaster: Volcanoes (National Geographic Books, 2007) pp 7–10
^"The Years Between the Wars", by Alfred Newton Richards, in The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years, 1863–1963 (National Academies, 1978) p507
^Gordon Rottman, US Marine Corps Pacific Theater of Operations 1941–43 (Osprey Publishing, 2004) p79
^Chuck Thompson, 25 Best World War II Sites Pacific Theater (ASDavis Media Group, 2002) p3
^Mazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN0-300-06552-3.
^Grigoriadis, Solon (2011) [1973]. Ιστορία της Σύγχρονης Ελλάδας 1941-1974. Τόμος 1 – Κατοχή: Η μεγάλη νύχτα [History of Modern Greece 1941-1974. Volume 1 – The Occupation: The Great Night] (in Greek). Athens: POLARIS. p. 313. ISBN978-960-9487-63-4.
^Shlomo Venezia, Inside the Gas Chambers: Eight Months in the Sonderkommando of Auschwitz (Polity, 2009) p 176–177
^Molly Searl, Montana Disasters: Fires, Floods, and Other Catastrophes (Pruett Publishing, 2001) p56; "Feb 27, 1943: Mine explosion kills 74 in Montana", This Day in History, History.com; "Blast Traps 75 In Montana Mine", Sheboygan (WI) Press, February 27, 1943, p1
^David Bankier and Israel Gutman, Nazi Europe and the Final Solution (Berghahn Books, 2009) pp 95–96
^Wolf Gruner, Jewish Forced Labor Under the Nazis: Economic Needs and Racial Aims, 1938–1944 (Cambridge University Press, 2006) p27
^Sarah Byrn Rickman, Nancy Love and the WASP Ferry Pilots of World War II (University of North Texas Press, 2008) p112
^Randolph Bradham, Hitler's U-Boat Fortresses (Greenwood Publishing, 2003) p53 Bernard Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization: A History of Europe in Our Time (Oxford University Press, 2007) pp 392–393; "RAF Looses a Torrent of Bombs on St. Nazaire, The Milwaukee Journal, March 1, 1943, p1
^Mazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 117–118. ISBN0-300-06552-3.
^Grigoriadis, Solon (2011) [1973]. Ιστορία της Σύγχρονης Ελλάδας 1941-1974. Τόμος 1 – Κατοχή: Η μεγάλη νύχτα [History of Modern Greece 1941-1974. Volume 1 – The Occupation: The Great Night] (in Greek). Athens: POLARIS. pp. 309–312. ISBN978-960-9487-63-4.
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