Evangelos Zappas

Evangelos Zappas
Evangelos Zappas
	An 1860 portrait of Zappas
Native name	Ευάγγελος Ζάππας
Nickname(s)	Evangelis (Ευαγγέλης)
Born	23 August 1800; Labovo, Pashalik of Yanina, Ottoman Empire in present-day Albania
Died	19 June 1865 (aged 64); Broșteni, United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in present-day Romania
Buried	Romania (initially); Labovo (body); Zappeion (skull);
Allegiance	First Hellenic Republic
Service/branch	Hellenic Army
Known for	Namesake and benefactor of the Zappeion; One of the founders of the Modern Olympic Games;
Battles/wars	Greek War of Independence First Siege of Missolonghi; Battle of Peta; ;
Relations	Konstantinos Zappas (cousin)
Other work	Member of the Filiki Etaireia; Financier of the Romanian Academy;

Evangelos or Evangelis Zappas (23 August 1800 – 19 June 1865; Greek: Ευάγγελος or Ευαγγέλης Ζάππας; Romanian: Evanghelie Zappa) was a Greek patriot, philanthropist and businessman who spent most of his life in Romania.^[2]^[3] He is recognized today as one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, which were held in 1859, 1870, 1875, and 1888 and preceded the Olympic Games that came under the auspices of the International Olympic Committee.^[1]^[4] These Games, known at the time simply as Olympics (Greek: Ολύμπια), came before the founding of the International Olympic Committee itself. The legacy of Zappas, as well as the legacy of his cousin Konstantinos, was also used to fund the Olympic Games of 1896.^[5]

During his youth, Zappas joined the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), achieving the rank of Major and fighting in several significant battles. Following Greek independence, he moved to Wallachia where he had a successful career as a businessman, becoming one of the richest men of that time in Eastern Europe. Aside from being the only major sponsor of the Olympic revival at that time, Zappas's philanthropy also included contributions toward the foundation of several Greek institutions and schools as well as sports and exhibition facilities.

Biography

Early life, military career, and later career in Wallachia

Evangelis Zappas was one of three children born to Vasileios Zappas and Sotira Meksi,^[6]^[7] of Greek^[1]^[3]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] or Aromanian^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] ancestry, on 23 August 1800 in the village of Labovo located near Tepelenë (modern Gjirokastër County, Albania) when the region was still under Ottoman rule.^[20] Zappas did not receive any education during his childhood.^[3] He left his village at the age of 13 and enrolled as a mercenary in the Ottoman militia of the local ruler Ali Pasha.^[21]^[22]

Zappas became a member of the Greek patriotic organization Filiki Eteria and joined his compatriots when the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821.^[22] During this period, Zappas reached the rank of Major in the revolutionary army and became a personal friend of the Souliot captain, Markos Botsaris.^[22]^[23] After Botsaris's death in 1823, Zappas served under various military commanders of the independence struggle, such as Dimitrios Panourgias, Kitsos Tzavelas, and Michail Spyromilios. He participated in several major conflicts, such as the siege of Souli, the first siege of Missolonghi and the Battle of Peta. In his later correspondence with a Greek official, he claimed that he was wounded five times during the war.^[21]^[24]

In 1831, Zappas emigrated to Wallachia and made a fortune in land and agriculture.^[22] In the 1850s, Zappas was considered one of the wealthiest entrepreneurs in Eastern Europe.^[25] At the time of his death in 1865, his total wealth was estimated at six million gold drachmas.^[26]

Revival of the Olympic Games

The idea of reviving the ancient Olympic Games had been raised from time to time during the early and mid 19th century, inspired to a certain degree by romanticism and patriotism.^[27] In 1833, the romantic poet Panagiotis Soutsos, in his work Dialogue of the Dead, proposed the revival of the Games in the newly formed Greek state, as part of the revival of ancient Greek tradition.^[28] In 1852, archaeologist Ernst Curtius stated during a lecture that the Olympic events would be revived.^[23]

Zappas was notably inspired by Panagiotis Soutsos and resolved to revive this ancient tradition through his own efforts and resources.^[29] In early 1856, he sent a letter through diplomatic channels to King Otto of Greece, offering to fund the revival of the Olympic Games, and to provide cash prizes to the victors.^[8] However, this initiative was not without opposition. There was wide belief among some Greek politicians that athletic games were a throwback to ancient times, unsuited to the modern era. Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, the Greek foreign minister and head of the conservative anti-athletics lobby in Athens, suggested an industrial and agricultural exposition instead of an athletics event.^[30] For months there was no official answer from the Greek state. In July 1856, an article in the Greek press by Panagiotis Soutsos made Zappas's proposal widely known to the public and triggered a series of events.^[3] King Otto agreed to the organization of athletics competitions at four-year intervals, with Zappa's full sponsorship, to coincide with industrial and agricultural expositions. As a result, Zappas provided the Greek government with the necessary financial resources to establish an Olympic Trust Fund.^[23]

On 15 November 1859, the first Olympic Games was held in a city square in central Athens. These athletic contests were the first Olympic Games of modern times with the provenance of ancient Greek roots and the intention of using an, as yet unready, ancient Greek stadium. That stadium, the Panathenaic Stadium, was first used for a modern Olympic Games in 1870 and for the first time since the ancient Panathenaic and Olympic Games. The athletes competed in a variety of disciplines, similar to that of the ancient Olympic Games: running, discus, javelin throwing, wrestling, jumping, and pole climbing.^[3]

Zappas left a fortune for the funding of future Olympiads to be held at the Panathenaic stadium. He died in 1865. His immense fortune was used for the construction of permanent sporting facilities in Athens, as well as for the continuation of the Olympiad.^[31] He also instructed on the building of the Zappeion exhibition and conference center, which is named in his honour and that of his cousin Konstantinos Zappas.^[5]

Legacy

Establishment of the modern Olympic Games

After Zappas's death, and wholly due to the Greek government ignoring Zappas's instructions to refurbish the stadium in marble, it was necessary to refurbish the Panathenaic stadium a second time, replacing wood for marble, in readiness for the Athens 1896 Olympic Games. After a period of litigation over Zappas's bequests, his cousin Konstantinos Zappas continued and expanded his endowment of the Games and maintained efforts for the continuation of the Olympic concept.^[32]^[33] In 1870, the new stadium, with a spectator capacity of 30,000, was ready to host the second Zappas Olympics.^[34] The Zappas Olympics of 1870, apart from being the first modern international Olympic Games to be hosted in a stadium, were better attended and hosted more events and athletes, and were much better organized in general.^[34] Additionally, the first modern Olympic building was built to support the contests (and hosted the fencing events of 1896), as well as an industrial exhibition that anti-athletic members of the Greek government had forced upon the concept of the Games. This building, located near the city's National Garden, was entirely funded by Zappas's legacy and was named Zappeion after him.^[35] The Zappeion officially opened on 20 October 1888.^[32]

Dr. William Penny Brookes, from the United Kingdom, further developed his Olympian Class sports events held in Much Wenlock in the 1850s, by adopting some events from the 1859 Athens Olympic Games into the programme of future Wenlock Olympian Games. Baron Pierre de Coubertin from Paris, France, was, in part, inspired by Dr. Brookes, and went on to found the International Olympic Committee in 1894.^[36]

Professor David C. Young, of the University of Florida (Gainesville), noted:

Had it not been for Zappas, the Athens Games of 1896 surely would not have taken place. Zappas's actions, his will and the previous tradition of Zappas Olympic Games had made [Crown Prince] Constantine [of Greece] an advocate of Olympic Games before the formation of the IOC in 1894.^[37]

Philanthropy

Through his philanthropic activity, Zappas contributed to the national awakening of the Greeks, Romanians and Albanians.^[38] Apart from his efforts to revive the Olympics, Evangelos Zappas made several philanthropic donations towards the foundation of schools, libraries and other similar institutions all over the Ottoman-occupied world, and notably their birthplace, Epirus. Greek schools were founded and expanded in several Greek-populated villages and towns, such as Labovo, Lekli, Nivani, Dhroviani, Filiates, Delvina, Përmet. In Constantinople, education facilities were also founded that included nurseries, primary and secondary schools, which were collectively known as the Zappeion Institute.^[39] Moreover, a large amount of money was deposited in the National Bank of Greece to provide scholarships for Greek agricultural students in order to conduct postgraduate studies in Western Europe.^[26]

During the anti-Greek Istanbul Pogrom in 1955, the facilities of the Zappeion female college in the Turkish capital were vandalized by the fanatical mob and a statue of him was broken into pieces.^[40]

In addition to donations to the Greek state, Zappas was also a financier of the Romanian Academy where he has a statue there today.^[41]^[42]^[43] Zappas was an ardent Greek nationalist influenced by the writings of Panagiotis Soutsos, a 19th-century Greek poet.^[44] Among academic projects funded by him were a new synthesis on the history of the Romanians and a Romanian dictionary.^[38] He also funded a newspaper and books in the Albanian language in Romania.^[38] In this context, Zappas adopted multiple identities related to his birthplace (Albania), ethnic origin (Greek), and his adopted country (Romania).^[38]

Personality and resting place

Crypt of Evangelos Zappas at the Zappeion.

Evangelis Zappas was often described as a solitary and eccentric personality, who had no children. On the other hand, he was a man of vision, determination and a patriot, who was well aware of the magnitude of his acts.^[5] His cousin, Konstantinos Zappas, was the executor of his will and he continued Evangelis Zappas' philanthropic works through his legacy. Zappas's wish was to be initially buried in Romania, where he lived most of his life. But after four years his bones were exhumed and reinterred at the school's courtyard in Labovo where he was born, and his skull was enshrined beneath his memorial statue outside the Zappeion in Athens, Greece. A ceremony for the interment was held at 10am on 20 October 1888 at the Zappeion.^[33] Baron Pierre de Coubertin made a similar gesture by having his heart buried at Olympia.^[35] In the virtually unpopulated Labovo, there is an old, yet legible, tombstone that states in Albanian: "Here lie the bones of the philanthropist Evangelis Zappas".^[45]

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c Decker 2005, p. 273: "E. Zappas, a Greek born in Albania (Ottoman Empire) but living in Romania, founded modern Olympic Games that were held in 1859, 1870, 1875 and 1888."
^ Golden 2009, p. 129; Trager 1979, p. 654.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Young 1991, p. 103.
^ Young 1991, p. 108: "Zappas the real founder of the modern Games was aging and ailing, ready to pass the torch to a successor."
^ ^a ^b ^c "Zappeion Culture and Exhibition Center". 2007. Archived from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 3 November 2010.
^ Meksi, Fedhon (2010). Labova dhe Madhe dhe Labovitët: gjurmime në vite. Migjeni. p. 115. ISBN 9789995671891. Vangjel Zhapa lindi më 23 gusht 1800. I ati quhej Vasil Zhapa, kurse e ëma Sotira Meksi, të dy nga Labova e Madhe.
^ Young 2005, p. 276.
^ ^a ^b Gerlach 2004, p. 25.
^ Hill 1992, p. 15.
^ Gerlach 2004, p. 37: "Zappas born to a Greek family in 1800 [...]"
^ Chatziefstathiou, D.; Henry, I. (30 July 2012). Discourses of Olympism: From the Sorbonne 1894 to London 2012. Springer. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-137-03556-1. Evangelios Zappas, a rich merchant of Greek origin
^ Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 15 July 2013. p. 148. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5. his ethnic origin (Greek)
^ Elaine Thomopoulos (2012). The History of Greece. Abc-Clio. p. 85. ISBN 9780313375118. Finally, Evangelis Zappas, a Vlach by descent, took the idea and ran with it, paving the way for the modern Olympics.
^ Pericles Smerlas (1999). About Greece. Some of the biggest national benefactors and personalities of the Greek history belong to Vlach families, like Pavlos Melas, Evangelos and Konstantinos Zappas, Stefanos and Ion.
^ Ioannis Kaphetzopoulos (2000). The struggle for Northern Epirus. Hellenic Army General Staff, Army History Directorate. p. 21. ISBN 9789607897404. It is an undisputed fact that the Vlachs joined their fate with that of Greece, and demonstrated their identity by their struggles and sacrifices, as well as in other ways... Kolletes and Spyridon Lampros were Vlachs. So were the great national benefactors George Averoff, Nicolaos Stournares, Tositsas, Sinas, Evangelos and Konstantinos Zappas...
^ Tomara-Sideris, Matoula. "The contribution of Vlach benefactors in the shaping of modern Greece" – via Academia.edu.
^ Οι Βλάχοι της Ελλάδος: η αυτονομιστική κίνηση του πρίγκιπα Διαμάντη, επεμβάσεις της Ρουμανίας και της Ιταλίας στα χρόνια 1860-1994, η εθνική αντίσταση των Ελληνών και οι Ελληνοβλάχοι στα χρόνια 1941-1945 (in Greek). Malliarēs paideia. 1998. p. 28. ISBN 9789602393581. Ο Ευάγγελος Ζάππας Βλάχος στην καταγωγή γεννήθηκε στο Λάμποβο της Νότιας Αλβανίας (Β. Ηπείρου) το 1804 όπου και σήμερα ακόμη ζουν 200.000 βλάχοι.
^ Chatzēphōtēs, Iōannēs M. (2002). Hē kathēmerinē zōē tōn Hellēnōn stēn Tourkokratia (in Greek). p. 167. Από τους Βλάχους αναδείχθηκαν επιφανείς μορφές του Ελληνισμού όπως: [...] Γ. Αβέρωφ Γ. Αρσάκης, Στέργιος Δούμπας, Ευάγγελος και Κων. Ζάππας, Χρ. Ζαλοκώστας, Γεώργιος και Χρηστάκης.
^ Liușnea, Cristian Ștefan (2020). "Evanghelie Zappa–un filantrop și un precursor al Jocurilor Olimpice moderne". Teologie și educație la Dunărea de Jos (in Romanian). 18 (18): 235. doi:10.35219/teologie.2020.13. S2CID 235033121. S‑a vorbit despre Evanghelie Zappa ca despre un aromân din Epir, care vorbește și albaneza.
^ Brownell 2008, Susan Brownell, "Introduction: Bodies before Boas, Sport before the Launcher Left", pp. 1–58: [p. 36] "The wealthy Greek merchant who founded the Olympiad, Evangelis Zappas, had intended to revive the ancient Olympic Games."; Alexander Kitroeff, "Chapter 8: Greece and the 1904 "American Olympics", pp. 301–323: [p. 303] "Greece's own revival of the ancient Olympics, in the form of the Zappas Olympics, named after Evangelis Zappas, a Greek diaspora merchant who provided the funds [...]"
^ ^a ^b Ruches 1967, p. 79.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Matthews 1904, p. 45.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hill 1992, p. 16.
^ Decker 2005, p. 277.
^ Young 1996, p. 142.
^ ^a ^b Ruches 1967, p. 80.
^ Golden 2009, p. 133.
^ Matthews 1904, p. 42; Young 1991, pp. 102, 114.
^ Matthews 1904, p. 46.
^ Brownell 2008, p. 36.
^ Gerlach 2004, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Rühl 2004, p. 13.
^ ^a ^b Young 1996, p. 201.
^ ^a ^b Young 1996, p. 148.
^ ^a ^b Ruprecht 2002, p. 152.
^ Young 1991, p. 102.
^ Young 1996, p. 117.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Iordachi 2013, p. 148.
^ Vassiadis 2007, p. 119.
^ "Σεπτέμβριος 1955: η τρίτη άλωση" (PDF). Η Καθημερινή: Επτά Ημέρες. 10 September 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
^ Constantinoiu, Marina (20 February 2020). "Primul mare donator al Societăţii Literare Române, devenită Academia Română, un Meccena pentru Ţara Românească". Evenimentul Istoric.
^ Academia Română (6 February 2020). "Comunicate de presa 2020". Academia Română.
^ Popescu, George (1 November 2016). "Evanghelie Zappa – un Meccena aromân pentru Ţara Românească". Radio România Actualităţi Online.
^ Reisler 2012, p. 24: "An ardent nationalist, Zappas had been inspired by works in the 1830s of the Greek poet Panayiotis Soutsos."
^ Young 2008, p. 149.

Sources

Brownell, Susan (2008). The 1904 Anthropology Days and Olympic Games: Sport, Race, and American Imperialism. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1098-1.
Decker, Wolfgang (2005). Festschrift für Wolfgang Decker zum 65. Geburtstag: dargebracht von Schülern, Freunden und Fachkollegen. Berlin: Weidmann. ISBN 3-615-00326-8.
Gerlach, Larry R. (2004). The Winter Olympics: From Chamonix to Salt Lake. Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-778-6.
Golden, Mark (2009). Greek Sport and Social Status. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71869-2.
Hill, Christopher R. (1992). Olympic Politics. New York and Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3792-1.
Iordachi, Constantin (2013). "From Imperial Entanglements to National Disentaglement: The "Greek Question" in Moldavia and Wallachia, 1611–1863". In Daskalov, Roumen; Marinov, Tchavdar (eds.). Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. Balkan Studies Library. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 67–148. ISBN 9789004250765.
Matthews, George R. (1904). America's First Olympics: The St. Louis Games of 1904. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1588-2.
Philologikos Syllogos "Parnassos" (1977). Parnassos (in Greek). Athens: Philologikos Syllogos Parnassos.
Reisler, Jim (2012). Igniting the Flame: America's First Olympic Team. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press. ISBN 978-0-7627-8660-2.
Ruches, Pyrrhus J. (1967). Albanian Historical Folksongs, 1716–1943: A Survey of Oral Epic Poetry from Southern Albania, with Original Texts. Chicago, IL: Argonaut Incorporated.
Rühl, Joachim K. (2004). "Olympic Games Before Coubertin". In Findling, John E.; Pelle, Kimberly D. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 3–16. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
Ruprecht, Louis A. (2002). Was Greek Thought Religious?: On the Use and Abuse of Hellenism, from Rome to Romanticism. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29563-9.
Trager, James (1979). The People's Chronology: A Year-by-year Record of Human Events from Prehistory to the Present. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 9780030178115.
Vassiadis, George A. (2007). The Syllogos Movement of Constantinople and Ottoman Greek Education 1861–1923. Athens: Centre for Asia Minor Studies. ISBN 978-960-87610-6-3.
Young, David C. (2008). A Brief History of the Olympic Games. Wiley Brief Histories of the Ancient World. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-047-07777-5-6.
Young, David C. (2005). "Evangelis Zappas: Olympian Sponsor of Modern Olympic Games". Nikephoros: Zeitschrift für Sport und Kultur im Altertum. 18: 273–288. ISSN 0934-8913.
Young, David C. (1996). The Modern Olympics – A Struggle for Revival. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5374-5.
Young, David C. (1991). "Myths and Mist Surrounding the Olympic Games: the Hidden Story". In Landry, Fernand; Landry, Marc; Yerlès, Magdeleine (eds.). Sport...Le Troisième Millénaire. Quebec City: Presses Université Laval. pp. 99–115. ISBN 2-7637-7267-6.

External links

[Decker273-1] Decker 2005, p. 273: "E. Zappas, a Greek born in Albania (Ottoman Empire) but living in Romania, founded modern Olympic Games that were held in 1859, 1870, 1875 and 1888."

[2] Golden 2009, p. 129; Trager 1979, p. 654.

[Young103-3] Young 1991, p. 103.

[4] Young 1991, p. 108: "Zappas the real founder of the modern Games was aging and ailing, ready to pass the torch to a successor."

[Zappeion_Megaro-5] "Zappeion Culture and Exhibition Center". 2007. Archived from the original on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 3 November 2010.

[6] Meksi, Fedhon (2010). Labova dhe Madhe dhe Labovitët: gjurmime në vite. Migjeni. p. 115. ISBN 9789995671891. Vangjel Zhapa lindi më 23 gusht 1800. I ati quhej Vasil Zhapa, kurse e ëma Sotira Meksi, të dy nga Labova e Madhe.

[7] Young 2005, p. 276.

[Gerlach25-8] Gerlach 2004, p. 25.

[9] Hill 1992, p. 15.

[10] Gerlach 2004, p. 37: "Zappas born to a Greek family in 1800 [...]"

[11] Chatziefstathiou, D.; Henry, I. (30 July 2012). Discourses of Olympism: From the Sorbonne 1894 to London 2012. Springer. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-137-03556-1. Evangelios Zappas, a rich merchant of Greek origin

[12] Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 15 July 2013. p. 148. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5. his ethnic origin (Greek)

[13] Elaine Thomopoulos (2012). The History of Greece. Abc-Clio. p. 85. ISBN 9780313375118. Finally, Evangelis Zappas, a Vlach by descent, took the idea and ran with it, paving the way for the modern Olympics.

[14] Pericles Smerlas (1999). About Greece. Some of the biggest national benefactors and personalities of the Greek history belong to Vlach families, like Pavlos Melas, Evangelos and Konstantinos Zappas, Stefanos and Ion.

[15] Ioannis Kaphetzopoulos (2000). The struggle for Northern Epirus. Hellenic Army General Staff, Army History Directorate. p. 21. ISBN 9789607897404. It is an undisputed fact that the Vlachs joined their fate with that of Greece, and demonstrated their identity by their struggles and sacrifices, as well as in other ways... Kolletes and Spyridon Lampros were Vlachs. So were the great national benefactors George Averoff, Nicolaos Stournares, Tositsas, Sinas, Evangelos and Konstantinos Zappas...

[16] Tomara-Sideris, Matoula. "The contribution of Vlach benefactors in the shaping of modern Greece" – via Academia.edu.

[17] Οι Βλάχοι της Ελλάδος: η αυτονομιστική κίνηση του πρίγκιπα Διαμάντη, επεμβάσεις της Ρουμανίας και της Ιταλίας στα χρόνια 1860-1994, η εθνική αντίσταση των Ελληνών και οι Ελληνοβλάχοι στα χρόνια 1941-1945 (in Greek). Malliarēs paideia. 1998. p. 28. ISBN 9789602393581. Ο Ευάγγελος Ζάππας Βλάχος στην καταγωγή γεννήθηκε στο Λάμποβο της Νότιας Αλβανίας (Β. Ηπείρου) το 1804 όπου και σήμερα ακόμη ζουν 200.000 βλάχοι.

[18] Chatzēphōtēs, Iōannēs M. (2002). Hē kathēmerinē zōē tōn Hellēnōn stēn Tourkokratia (in Greek). p. 167. Από τους Βλάχους αναδείχθηκαν επιφανείς μορφές του Ελληνισμού όπως: [...] Γ. Αβέρωφ Γ. Αρσάκης, Στέργιος Δούμπας, Ευάγγελος και Κων. Ζάππας, Χρ. Ζαλοκώστας, Γεώργιος και Χρηστάκης.

[19] Liușnea, Cristian Ștefan (2020). "Evanghelie Zappa–un filantrop și un precursor al Jocurilor Olimpice moderne". Teologie și educație la Dunărea de Jos (in Romanian). 18 (18): 235. doi:10.35219/teologie.2020.13. S2CID 235033121. S‑a vorbit despre Evanghelie Zappa ca despre un aromân din Epir, care vorbește și albaneza.

[Brownell-20] Brownell 2008, Susan Brownell, "Introduction: Bodies before Boas, Sport before the Launcher Left", pp. 1–58: [p. 36] "The wealthy Greek merchant who founded the Olympiad, Evangelis Zappas, had intended to revive the ancient Olympic Games."; Alexander Kitroeff, "Chapter 8: Greece and the 1904 "American Olympics", pp. 301–323: [p. 303] "Greece's own revival of the ancient Olympics, in the form of the Zappas Olympics, named after Evangelis Zappas, a Greek diaspora merchant who provided the funds [...]"

[Ruches79-21] Ruches 1967, p. 79.

[Matthews45-22] Matthews 1904, p. 45.

[Hill16-23] Hill 1992, p. 16.

[24] Decker 2005, p. 277.

[25] Young 1996, p. 142.

[Ruches80-26] Ruches 1967, p. 80.

[27] Golden 2009, p. 133.

[28] Matthews 1904, p. 42; Young 1991, pp. 102, 114.

[29] Matthews 1904, p. 46.

[30] Brownell 2008, p. 36.

[31] Gerlach 2004, p. 29.

[Rühl13-32] Rühl 2004, p. 13.

[Young201-33] Young 1996, p. 201.

[Young148-34] Young 1996, p. 148.

[Ruprecht152-35] Ruprecht 2002, p. 152.

[36] Young 1991, p. 102.

[37] Young 1996, p. 117.

[Iordachi-38] Iordachi 2013, p. 148.

[39] Vassiadis 2007, p. 119.

[40] "Σεπτέμβριος 1955: η τρίτη άλωση" (PDF). Η Καθημερινή: Επτά Ημέρες. 10 September 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.

[41] Constantinoiu, Marina (20 February 2020). "Primul mare donator al Societăţii Literare Române, devenită Academia Română, un Meccena pentru Ţara Românească". Evenimentul Istoric.

[42] Academia Română (6 February 2020). "Comunicate de presa 2020". Academia Română.

[43] Popescu, George (1 November 2016). "Evanghelie Zappa – un Meccena aromân pentru Ţara Românească". Radio România Actualităţi Online.

[44] Reisler 2012, p. 24: "An ardent nationalist, Zappas had been inspired by works in the 1830s of the Greek poet Panayiotis Soutsos."

[45] Young 2008, p. 149.

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Evangelos Zappas

Biography

Early life, military career, and later career in Wallachia

Revival of the Olympic Games

Legacy

Establishment of the modern Olympic Games

Philanthropy

Personality and resting place

See also

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

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Notre-Dame-de-l'Assomption, Paris

Otto Hahn

1820 New Hampshire gubernatorial election

Алейников, Игорь Олегович

Ecoforestry

Scotiabank

Hubble Space Telescope

Strip That Down

Aedoeus concolor

Love Scene Number

Putusan Arbitrase Wina Kedua