Epicoccum nigrum (1825) is a fungus with no known teleomorph form.[1] It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes,[2] in the Deuteromycota, as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually. Despite that it is not yeast-like, it has been included in the broad, unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts.[2] The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow, orange, and red, often with brown or black throughout.[1][2] Colonies grow quickly, reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature.[1] Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose.[1]
Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured, warted and spherical, reaching 15 to 25 μm in diameter.[1] Conidia grow on a sporodochium, formed by warty and fibrous hyphae.[1][3] Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells.[4] The spores of E. nigrum are actively released depending on temperature, light, and relative humidity conditions.[5] The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum. It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia, allowing it to "bounce" off the sporodochium.[6] Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind.[7] Sporulation is induced under Wood's light, or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature.[1] Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes.[8] Ideal growth temperatures range between 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and ideal growth pH ranges from 5.0 to 6.0.[1] Although E. nigrum will grow in a range of water activity (aw of 0.99 to 0.97),[9] growth is optimized at water vapour saturation.[1]
Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites, including important antifungal agents and pigments, including: flavipin, epicorazines A and B, epirodin, epicocconone, and a variety of carotenoid pigments.[10][11]Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver- and gold nanoparticles.[12][13]
Habitat and ecology
A highly robust and ubiquitous fungus,[14]E. nigrum has an almost global spread, occurring in the Americas, Asia, and Europe.[1] Spores of E. nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments, predominantly soil (i.e. peat, forest floor, raw humus, compost, tundra, sewage)[1] and sand (e.g., dunes, saline sands).[1][15] It is a saprophytic fungus, forming pustules (composed of sporodochia and conidia) on dead and dying plants.[4] This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds, as well as other crops including corn, beans, potatoes, peas and peaches.[1][16] It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 °C (32 °F), and is considered a facultative marine fungus.[17] It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses.[17] In indoor environments, E. nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper,[18] cotton and textiles,[1][4] in dust,[16][18] and in air.[1][16][19][20] It is tolerant of changes in water availability, and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water.[17]
Biomedical, industrial, and agricultural uses
Epicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical, industrial, and agricultural applications. It produces a variety of pigmented and non-pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds.[11][21] These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil.[11] Flavipin, and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents;[10][11] non-pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B.[11] Endophytic fungi such as E. nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections.[22] Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum.[23] Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum.[24] Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function.[24]
Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications. It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold, which have applications in chemical, industrial, and medical processes.[12][13] It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent, reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide, phenols, and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent.[25]Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food.[26] It produces a variety of pigments, ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens.[26] These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E. nigrum.[26]
In Brazil, E. nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens.[27] It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit, caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena.[28] In contrast to these uses for E. nigrum metabolites, there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E. nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts.[29] The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary.[29] This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates, where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames.[29]
Epidemiology
Epicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE, sometimes cross-reacting with other fungal allergens.[16] Cross-reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium citrinum.[30]Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies, including allergic asthma, rhinitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and allergic fungal sinusitis.[16][31] Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E. nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home, with daily exposure to E. nigrum in the shower.[32] The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples.[1] It does not typically cause systemic infection, although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient.[33]
History and reclassification
Epicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum. It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link.[34] Today, all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E. nigrum.[4] These include: E. purpurascens, E. diversisporum, E. versicolor, E. vulgare, E. granulatum, E. menispermi, and E. neglectum.[4][34] More recently, two distinct genotypes for E. nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing, morphology, physiology, and recombination factors.[35] This indicates the existence of cryptic species, and a subsequent call to re-classify E. nigrum into more than one species.[35]
^ abcPfaller, [edited by] Elias J. Anaissie, Michael R. McGinnis, Michael A. (2009). Clinical mycology (2nd ed.). [Edinburgh?]: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN978-1-4160-5680-5. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Mims, C.W.; Richardson, E.A. (October 2005). "Ultrastructure of sporodochium and conidium development in the anamorphic fungus". Canadian Journal of Botany. 83 (10): 1354–1363. doi:10.1139/b05-137.
^ abcdeSchol-Schwarz, M. Beatrice (June 1959). "The genus Epicoccum Link". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 42 (2): 149–IN3. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(59)80024-3.
^Meredith, Donald S. (1966). "Diurnal periodicity and violent liberation of conidia in epicoccum". Phytopathology. 56: 988.
^Webster, J. (June 1966). "Spore projection in Epicoccum and Arthrinium". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 49 (2): 339–IN14. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(66)80068-2.
^ALDRED, DAVID; PENN, JULIA; MAGAN, NARESH (February 2005). "Water availability and metabolomic profiles of Epicoccum nigrum and Sarophorum palmicola grown in solid substrate fermentation systems". Mycologist. 19 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1017/S0269915X05001035.
^ abBamford, P.C.; Norris, G.L.F.; Ward, G. (September 1961). "Flavipin production by Epicoccum spp". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 44 (3): 354–356. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(61)80028-4.
^ abcdeBrown, Averil E.; Finlay, Ruth; Ward, J.S. (January 1987). "Antifungal compounds produced by Epicoccum purpurascens against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 19 (6): 657–664. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(87)90044-7.
^ abQian, Yongqing; Yu, Huimei; He, Dan; Yang, Hui; Wang, Wanting; Wan, Xue; Wang, Li (6 March 2013). "Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Epicoccum nigrum and their activity against pathogenic fungi". Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 36 (11): 1613–1619. doi:10.1007/s00449-013-0937-z. PMID23463299. S2CID19159298.
^ abSheikhloo, Zeinab; Salouti, Mojtaba; Katiraee, Farzad (15 September 2011). "Biological Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of Cluster Science. 22 (4): 661–665. doi:10.1007/s10876-011-0412-4. S2CID97716088.
^Debrecen, edited by Mahendra Rai, University of (2010). Progress in mycology. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN978-90-481-3712-1. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abcdeMiller, edited by Brian Flannigan, Robert A. Samson, J. David (2011). Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN978-1-4200-9334-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abcCole, Edited by Garry; Kendrick, Edited by Bryce (1981). Biology of conidial fungi. New York [u.a.]: Acad. Press. ISBN978-0-12-179501-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
^ abSingh, Jagjit, ed. (1994). Building Mycology Management of Decay and Health in Buildings (1st ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN978-0-203-97473-5.
^Sun, Hai-Hong; Mao, Wen-Jun; Jiao, Jie-Ying; Xu, Jia-Chao; Li, Hong-Yan; Chen, Yin; Qi, Xiao-Hui; Chen, Yan-Li; Xu, Jian; Zhao, Chun-Qi; Hou, Yu-Jiao; Yang, Yu-Pin (29 January 2011). "Structural Characterization of Extracellular Polysaccharides Produced by the Marine Fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY-40 and Their Antioxidant Activities". Marine Biotechnology. 13 (5): 1048–1055. doi:10.1007/s10126-011-9368-5. PMID21279405. S2CID5103926.
^ abBell, Phillip J. L.; Karuso, Peterq (2003). "Epicocconone, A Novel Fluorescent Compound from the Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 125 (31): 9304–9305. doi:10.1021/ja035496+. PMID12889954.
^De Cal, A.; Larena, I.; Liñán, M.; Torres, R.; Lamarca, N.; Usall, J.; Domenichini, P.; Bellini, A.; de Eribe, X.O.; Melgarejo, P. (February 2009). "Population dynamics of a biocontrol agent against brown rot in stone fruit". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 106 (2): 592–605. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.04030.x. PMID19200324.
