Beta diversity

In ecology, beta diversity (β-diversity or true beta diversity) is the ratio between regional and local species diversity. The term was introduced by R. H. Whittaker^[1] together with the terms alpha diversity (α-diversity) and gamma diversity (γ-diversity). The idea was that the total species diversity in a landscape (γ) is determined by two different things: the mean species diversity at the local level (α) and the differentiation among local sites (β). Other formulations for beta diversity include "absolute species turnover", "Whittaker's species turnover" and "proportional species turnover".^{[citation needed]}

Whittaker proposed several ways of quantifying differentiation, and subsequent generations of ecologists have invented more. As a result, there are now many defined types of beta diversity.^[2]^[3] Some use beta diversity to refer to any of several indices related to compositional heterogeneity.^[4]^[5]^[6] Confusion is avoided by using distinct names for other formulations.^[2]^[3]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]

Beta diversity as a measure of species turnover overemphasizes the role of rare species as the difference in species composition between two sites or communities is likely reflecting the presence and absence of some rare species in the assemblages. Beta diversity can also be a measure of nestedness, which occurs when species assemblages in species-poor sites are a subset of the assemblages in more species-rich sites.^[11] Moreover, pairwise beta diversity are inadequate in building all biodiversity partitions (some partitions in a Venn diagram of 3 or more sites cannot be expressed by alpha and beta diversity). Consequently, some macroecological and community patterns cannot be fully expressed by alpha and beta diversity. Due to these two reasons, a new way of measuring species turnover, coined Zeta diversity (ζ-diversity),^[12] has been proposed and used to connect all existing incidence-based biodiversity patterns.

Types

Whittaker beta diversity

Gamma diversity and alpha diversity can be calculated directly from species inventory data.^[2]^[13] The simplest of Whittaker's original definitions of beta diversity is

β = γ/α

Here gamma diversity is the total species diversity of a landscape and alpha diversity is the mean species diversity per site. Because the limits among local sites and landscapes are diffuse and to some degree subjective, it has been proposed that gamma diversity can be quantified for any inventory dataset and that alpha and beta diversity can be quantified whenever the dataset is divided into subunits. Then gamma diversity is the total species diversity in the dataset and alpha diversity the mean species diversity per subunit. Beta diversity quantifies how many subunits there would be if the total species diversity of the dataset and the mean species diversity per subunit remained the same, but the subunits shared no species.^[2]^[7]

Absolute species turnover

Some researchers have preferred to partition gamma diversity into additive rather than multiplicative components.^[14]^[15] Then the beta component of diversity becomes

β_A = γ - α

This quantifies how much more species diversity the entire dataset contains than an average subunit within the dataset. This can also be interpreted as the total amount of species turnover among the subunits in the dataset.^[2]

When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this can be calculated with the following equation:

$\beta _{A}=(S_{1}-c)+(S_{2}-c)$ ^[16]

where, S₁= the total number of species recorded in the first community, S₂= the total number of species recorded in the second community, and c= the number of species common to both communities.

Whittaker's species turnover

If absolute species turnover is divided by alpha diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies how many times the species composition changes completely among the subunits of the dataset. This measure was proposed by Whittaker,^[17] so it has been called Whittaker's species turnover.^[2] It is calculated as

β_W = (γ - α)/α = γ/α - 1

When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this equals the one-complement of the Sørensen similarity index.^[2]^[18]

Proportional species turnover

If absolute species turnover is divided by gamma diversity, a measure is obtained that quantifies what proportion of the species diversity in the dataset is not contained in an average subunit.^[2] It is calculated as

β_P = (γ - α)/γ = 1 - α/γ

When there are two subunits, and presence-absence data are used, this measure as ranged to the interval [0, 1] equals the one-complement of the Jaccard similarity index.^[2]

β-diversity patterns

Although understanding the change in species composition from local to regional scales (β-diversity) is a central theme in ecology and biogeography, studies often reached different conclusions as to the fundamental patterns in β-diversity. For example, niche compression hypothesis predicted higher β-diversity at lower latitudes.^[20]^[19]^[21]^[22]^[23] Studies comparing natural local sites with human-modified local sites are no different. Kitching et al.^[24] sampled moths in primary and logged forests of Danum valley, Borneo to show that β-diversity in primary forests was higher than logged forests. Contrastingly, Berry et al.^[25] sampled trees in the same study area to show that β-diversity in logged forests was higher than primary forests. The results of these two studies were completely different from the results of a recent quantitative synthesis,^[26] which showed that β-diversity in primary forests were similar to β-diversity in all types of human-modified local sites (secondary forests, plantations, pasture and urban). Therefore, there is a clear lack of consensus on β-diversity patterns among studies. Sreekar et al.^[19] suggested that most of these inconsistencies were due to the differences in grain size and/or spatial extent among studies. They showed that spatial scale changes the relationship between β-diversity and latitude.

Diversity partitioning in the geologic past

Major diversification events in the geologic past were associated with shifts in the relative contributions of alpha- and beta-diversity (diversity partitioning). Examples include the Cambrian explosion,^[27] the great Ordovician biodiversification event,^[28] and the recoveries from the end-Permian^[29] and end-Triassic^[30] mass extinction events. Empirical data from these case studies confirm theoretical predictions that an increasing number of species will increase beta-diversity relative to alpha diversity because of the effects from interspecific competition; yet, alpha diversity may increase again once options for increasing geographic turnover are exhausted.^[31]

References

^ Whittaker RH (1960). "Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California". Ecological Monographs. 30 (3): 279–338. Bibcode:1960EcoM...30..279W. doi:10.2307/1943563. JSTOR 1943563.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Tuomisto H (2010). "A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 1. Defining beta diversity as a function of alpha and gamma diversity". Ecography. 33 (1): 2–22. Bibcode:2010Ecogr..33....2T. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05880.x.
^ ^a ^b Tuomisto H (2010). "A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 2. Quantifying beta diversity and related phenomena". Ecography. 33 (1): 23–45. Bibcode:2010Ecogr..33...23T. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.06148.x.
^ Koleff P, Gaston KJ, Lennon JJ (2003). "Measuring beta diversity for presence–absence data". Journal of Animal Ecology. 72 (3): 367–382. Bibcode:2003JAnEc..72..367K. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x.
^ Anderson MJ, Crist TO, Chase JM, Vellend M, Inouye BD, Freestone AL, et al. (January 2011). "Navigating the multiple meanings of β diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist". Ecology Letters. 14 (1): 19–28. Bibcode:2011EcolL..14...19A. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01552.x. PMID 21070562.
^ Gorelick R (December 2011). "Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? The fallacy of true diversity". Oecologia. 167 (4): 885–8, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..885G. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2124-8. PMID 21947497. S2CID 6244637.
^ ^a ^b Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860. doi:10.1007/s00442-010-1812-0
^ Jurasinski G, Koch M (December 2011). "Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? We are on the way". Oecologia. 167 (4): 893–902, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..893J. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2126-6. PMID 21938639. S2CID 24562429.
^ Moreno CE, Rodríguez P (December 2011). "Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Back to basics and toward a unifying framework". Oecologia. 167 (4): 889–92, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..889M. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2125-7. PMID 21965142. S2CID 8917573.
^ Tuomisto H (2011). "Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Yes, if we choose to use it". Oecologia. 167 (4): 903–911. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..903T. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2128-4. S2CID 19271108.
^ Baselga A (January 2010). "Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of beta diversity". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 19 (1): 134–143. Bibcode:2010GloEB..19..134B. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00490.x. ISSN 1466-8238.
^ Hui C, McGeoch MA (2014). "Zeta diversity as a concept and metric that unifies incidence-based biodiversity patterns". American Naturalist. 184 (5): 684–694. doi:10.1086/678125. hdl:10019.1/98200. PMID 25325751. S2CID 24693167.
^ Chao A, Chiu CH, Jost L (November 2010). "Phylogenetic diversity measures based on Hill numbers". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 365 (1558): 3599–609. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0272. PMC 2982003. PMID 20980309.
^ Lande R (May 1996). "Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities". Oikos. 1 (1): 5–13. Bibcode:1996Oikos..76....5L. doi:10.2307/3545743. JSTOR 3545743.
^ Veech JA, Summerville KS, Crist TO, Gering JC (October 2002). "The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an old idea". Oikos. 99 (1): 3–9. Bibcode:2002Oikos..99....3V. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990101.x.
^ Albert JS, Reis RE (8 March 2011). Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes. University of California Press. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-520-26868-5. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
^ Whittaker RH (1972). "Evolution and measurement of species diversity". Taxon. 21 (2–3): 213–251. doi:10.2307/1218190. JSTOR 1218190.
^ Sørensen TA (1948). "A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content, and its application to analyses of the vegetation on Danish commons". Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Biologiske Skrifter. 5: 1–34.
^ ^a ^b ^c Sreekar R, Katabuchi M, Nakamura A, Corlett RT, Slik JW, Fletcher C, et al. (September 2018). "Spatial scale changes the relationship between beta diversity, species richness and latitude". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (9): 181168. Bibcode:2018RSOS....581168S. doi:10.1098/rsos.181168. PMC 6170539. PMID 30839691.
^ MacArthur RH (November 1965). "Patterns of species diversity". Biological Reviews. 40 (4): 510–33. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1965.tb00815.x. S2CID 86777476.
^ Koleff P, Lennon JJ, Gaston KJ (November 2003). "Are there latitudinal gradients in species turnover?". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 12 (6): 483–98. Bibcode:2003GloEB..12..483K. doi:10.1046/j.1466-822X.2003.00056.x.
^ Kraft NJ, Comita LS, Chase JM, Sanders NJ, Swenson NG, Crist TO, et al. (September 2011). "Disentangling the drivers of β diversity along latitudinal and elevational gradients". Science. 333 (6050). New York, N.Y.: 1755–8. Bibcode:2011Sci...333.1755K. doi:10.1126/science.1208584. PMID 21940897. S2CID 206535334.
^ Qian H, Chen S, Mao L, Ouyang Z (June 2013). "Drivers of β-diversity along latitudinal gradients revisited". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 22 (6): 659–70. Bibcode:2013GloEB..22..659Q. doi:10.1111/geb.12020.
^ Kitching RL, Ashton LA, Nakamura A, Whitaker T, Khen CV (June 2013). "Distance-driven species turnover in Bornean rainforests: homogeneity and heterogeneity in primary and post-logging forests". Ecography. 36 (6): 675–82. Bibcode:2013Ecogr..36..675K. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.00023.x. hdl:10072/57312.
^ Berry NJ, Phillips OL, Ong RC, Hamer KC (October 2008). "Impacts of selective logging on tree diversity across a rainforest landscape: the importance of spatial scale". Landscape Ecology. 23 (8): 915–29. doi:10.1007/s10980-008-9248-1. S2CID 38892245.
^ Newbold T, Hudson LN, Hill SL, Contu S, Gray CL, Scharlemann JP, et al. (December 2016). "Global patterns of terrestrial assemblage turnover within and among land uses". Ecography. 39 (12): 1151–63. Bibcode:2016Ecogr..39.1151N. doi:10.1111/ecog.01932. hdl:10044/1/32808.
^ Na L, Kiessling W (April 2015). "Diversity partitioning during the Cambrian radiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (15): 4702–6. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4702N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1424985112. PMC 4403203. PMID 25825755.
^ Sepkoski JJ (1988). "Alpha, beta, or gamma: where does all the diversity go?". Paleobiology. 14 (3): 221–34. Bibcode:1988Pbio...14..221S. doi:10.1017/s0094837300011969. PMID 11542147. S2CID 2826581.
^ Hofmann R, Hautmann M, Bucher H (2017-10-03). "Diversity partitioning in Permian and Early Triassic benthic ecosystems of the Western USA: a comparison". Historical Biology. 29 (7): 918–930. Bibcode:2017HBio...29..918H. doi:10.1080/08912963.2016.1263626. S2CID 132194066.
^ Hautmann M (2016). "Diversity partitioning in Jurassic level-bottom communities". Historical Biology. 28 (6): 849–857. Bibcode:2016HBio...28..849H. doi:10.1080/08912963.2015.1051482. S2CID 85880638.
^ Hautmann M (2014). "Diversification and diversity partitioning". Paleobiology. 40 (2): 162–176. doi:10.1666/13041. S2CID 86225708.

[Whittaker1960-1] Whittaker RH (1960). "Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California". Ecological Monographs. 30 (3): 279–338. Bibcode:1960EcoM...30..279W. doi:10.2307/1943563. JSTOR 1943563.

[Tuomisto2010a-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Tuomisto H (2010). "A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 1. Defining beta diversity as a function of alpha and gamma diversity". Ecography. 33 (1): 2–22. Bibcode:2010Ecogr..33....2T. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05880.x.

[Tuomisto2010b-3] Tuomisto H (2010). "A diversity of beta diversities: straightening up a concept gone awry. Part 2. Quantifying beta diversity and related phenomena". Ecography. 33 (1): 23–45. Bibcode:2010Ecogr..33...23T. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.06148.x.

[Koleff2003-4] Koleff P, Gaston KJ, Lennon JJ (2003). "Measuring beta diversity for presence–absence data". Journal of Animal Ecology. 72 (3): 367–382. Bibcode:2003JAnEc..72..367K. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00710.x.

[pmid21070562-5] Anderson MJ, Crist TO, Chase JM, Vellend M, Inouye BD, Freestone AL, et al. (January 2011). "Navigating the multiple meanings of β diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist". Ecology Letters. 14 (1): 19–28. Bibcode:2011EcolL..14...19A. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01552.x. PMID 21070562.

[pmid21947497-6] Gorelick R (December 2011). "Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? The fallacy of true diversity". Oecologia. 167 (4): 885–8, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..885G. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2124-8. PMID 21947497. S2CID 6244637.

[Tuomisto2010c-7] Tuomisto, H. 2010. A consistent terminology for quantifying species diversity? Yes, it does exist. Oecologia 4: 853–860. doi:10.1007/s00442-010-1812-0

[pmid21938639-8] Jurasinski G, Koch M (December 2011). "Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? We are on the way". Oecologia. 167 (4): 893–902, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..893J. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2126-6. PMID 21938639. S2CID 24562429.

[pmid21965142-9] Moreno CE, Rodríguez P (December 2011). "Commentary: Do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Back to basics and toward a unifying framework". Oecologia. 167 (4): 889–92, discussion 903–11. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..889M. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2125-7. PMID 21965142. S2CID 8917573.

[10] Tuomisto H (2011). "Commentary: do we have a consistent terminology for species diversity? Yes, if we choose to use it". Oecologia. 167 (4): 903–911. Bibcode:2011Oecol.167..903T. doi:10.1007/s00442-011-2128-4. S2CID 19271108.

[11] Baselga A (January 2010). "Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of beta diversity". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 19 (1): 134–143. Bibcode:2010GloEB..19..134B. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00490.x. ISSN 1466-8238.

[12] Hui C, McGeoch MA (2014). "Zeta diversity as a concept and metric that unifies incidence-based biodiversity patterns". American Naturalist. 184 (5): 684–694. doi:10.1086/678125. hdl:10019.1/98200. PMID 25325751. S2CID 24693167.

[Jost2006-13] Chao A, Chiu CH, Jost L (November 2010). "Phylogenetic diversity measures based on Hill numbers". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 365 (1558): 3599–609. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0272. PMC 2982003. PMID 20980309.

[14] Lande R (May 1996). "Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities". Oikos. 1 (1): 5–13. Bibcode:1996Oikos..76....5L. doi:10.2307/3545743. JSTOR 3545743.

[15] Veech JA, Summerville KS, Crist TO, Gering JC (October 2002). "The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an old idea". Oikos. 99 (1): 3–9. Bibcode:2002Oikos..99....3V. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990101.x.

[AlbertReis2011-16] Albert JS, Reis RE (8 March 2011). Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Freshwater Fishes. University of California Press. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-520-26868-5. Retrieved 28 June 2011.

[17] Whittaker RH (1972). "Evolution and measurement of species diversity". Taxon. 21 (2–3): 213–251. doi:10.2307/1218190. JSTOR 1218190.

[Sørensen-18] Sørensen TA (1948). "A method of establishing groups of equal amplitude in plant sociology based on similarity of species content, and its application to analyses of the vegetation on Danish commons". Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Biologiske Skrifter. 5: 1–34.

[Sreekar2018-19] Sreekar R, Katabuchi M, Nakamura A, Corlett RT, Slik JW, Fletcher C, et al. (September 2018). "Spatial scale changes the relationship between beta diversity, species richness and latitude". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (9): 181168. Bibcode:2018RSOS....581168S. doi:10.1098/rsos.181168. PMC 6170539. PMID 30839691.

[20] MacArthur RH (November 1965). "Patterns of species diversity". Biological Reviews. 40 (4): 510–33. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1965.tb00815.x. S2CID 86777476.

[21] Koleff P, Lennon JJ, Gaston KJ (November 2003). "Are there latitudinal gradients in species turnover?". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 12 (6): 483–98. Bibcode:2003GloEB..12..483K. doi:10.1046/j.1466-822X.2003.00056.x.

[pmid21940897-22] Kraft NJ, Comita LS, Chase JM, Sanders NJ, Swenson NG, Crist TO, et al. (September 2011). "Disentangling the drivers of β diversity along latitudinal and elevational gradients". Science. 333 (6050). New York, N.Y.: 1755–8. Bibcode:2011Sci...333.1755K. doi:10.1126/science.1208584. PMID 21940897. S2CID 206535334.

[23] Qian H, Chen S, Mao L, Ouyang Z (June 2013). "Drivers of β-diversity along latitudinal gradients revisited". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 22 (6): 659–70. Bibcode:2013GloEB..22..659Q. doi:10.1111/geb.12020.

[24] Kitching RL, Ashton LA, Nakamura A, Whitaker T, Khen CV (June 2013). "Distance-driven species turnover in Bornean rainforests: homogeneity and heterogeneity in primary and post-logging forests". Ecography. 36 (6): 675–82. Bibcode:2013Ecogr..36..675K. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.00023.x. hdl:10072/57312.

[25] Berry NJ, Phillips OL, Ong RC, Hamer KC (October 2008). "Impacts of selective logging on tree diversity across a rainforest landscape: the importance of spatial scale". Landscape Ecology. 23 (8): 915–29. doi:10.1007/s10980-008-9248-1. S2CID 38892245.

[26] Newbold T, Hudson LN, Hill SL, Contu S, Gray CL, Scharlemann JP, et al. (December 2016). "Global patterns of terrestrial assemblage turnover within and among land uses". Ecography. 39 (12): 1151–63. Bibcode:2016Ecogr..39.1151N. doi:10.1111/ecog.01932. hdl:10044/1/32808.

[27] Na L, Kiessling W (April 2015). "Diversity partitioning during the Cambrian radiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (15): 4702–6. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.4702N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1424985112. PMC 4403203. PMID 25825755.

[28] Sepkoski JJ (1988). "Alpha, beta, or gamma: where does all the diversity go?". Paleobiology. 14 (3): 221–34. Bibcode:1988Pbio...14..221S. doi:10.1017/s0094837300011969. PMID 11542147. S2CID 2826581.

[29] Hofmann R, Hautmann M, Bucher H (2017-10-03). "Diversity partitioning in Permian and Early Triassic benthic ecosystems of the Western USA: a comparison". Historical Biology. 29 (7): 918–930. Bibcode:2017HBio...29..918H. doi:10.1080/08912963.2016.1263626. S2CID 132194066.

[30] Hautmann M (2016). "Diversity partitioning in Jurassic level-bottom communities". Historical Biology. 28 (6): 849–857. Bibcode:2016HBio...28..849H. doi:10.1080/08912963.2015.1051482. S2CID 85880638.

[31] Hautmann M (2014). "Diversification and diversity partitioning". Paleobiology. 40 (2): 162–176. doi:10.1666/13041. S2CID 86225708.

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Beta diversity

Types

Whittaker beta diversity

Absolute species turnover

Whittaker's species turnover

Proportional species turnover

β-diversity patterns

Diversity partitioning in the geologic past

See also

References

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