Distances to remote objects, other than those in nearby galaxies, are nearly always inferred by measuring the cosmological redshift of their light. By their nature, very distant objects tend to be very faint, and these distance determinations are difficult and subject to errors. An important distinction is whether the distance is determined via spectroscopy or using a photometric redshift technique. The former is generally both more precise and also more reliable, in the sense that photometric redshifts are more prone to being wrong due to confusion with lower redshift sources that may have unusual spectra. For that reason, a spectroscopic redshift is conventionally regarded as being necessary for an object's distance to be considered definitely known, whereas photometrically determined redshifts identify "candidate" very distant sources. Here, this distinction is indicated by a "p" subscript for photometric redshifts.
The proper distance provides a measurement of how far a galaxy is at a fixed moment in time. At the present time the proper distance equals the comoving distance since the cosmological scale factor has value one: . The proper distance represents the distance obtained as if one were able to freeze the flow of time (set in the FLRW metric) and walk all the way to a galaxy while using a meter stick.[2] For practical reasons, the proper distance is calculated as the distance traveled by light (set in the FLRW metric) from the time of emission by a galaxy to the time an observer (on Earth) receives the light signal. It differs from the “light travel distance” since the proper distance takes into account the expansion of the universe, i.e. the space expands as the light travels through it, resulting in numerical values which locate the most distant galaxies beyond the Hubble sphere and therefore with recession velocities greater than the speed of light c.[3]
Most distant spectroscopically-confirmed objects
Most distant astronomical objects with spectroscopic redshift determinations
Lyman-break galaxy, detection of the Lyman break with JWST/NIRCam [10] and JWST/NIRSpec,[12] and CIII] line emission with JWST/NIRSpec.[12] Most distant spectroscopic redshift from emission lines; most distant detection of non-primordial elements (C, O, Ne).
Lyman-break galaxy; detection of the Lyman break with HST at 5.5σ[16] and carbon emission lines with Keck/MOSFIRE at 5.3σ.[17] Conclusive redshift by JWST in February 2023[12]
§ The tabulated distance is the light travel distance, which has no direct physical significance. See discussion at distance measures and Observable Universe
† Numeric value obtained using Wright (2006)[5] with = 70, = 0.30, = 0.70.
Candidate most distant objects
Since the beginning of the James Webb Space Telescope's (JWST) science operations in June 2022, numerous distant galaxies far beyond what could be seen by the Hubble Space Telescope (z = 11) have been discovered thanks to the JWST's capability of seeing far into the infrared.[45][46] Previously in 2012, there were about 50 possible objects z = 8 or farther, and another 100 candidates at z = 7, based on photometric redshift estimates released by the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) project from observations made between mid-2002 and December 2012.[47] Some objects included here have been observed spectroscopically, but had only one emission line tentatively detected, and are therefore still considered candidates by researchers.[48][49]
Notable candidates for most distant astronomical objects
Lyman-break galaxy discovered by JWST[46] NOTE: The redshift value of the galaxy presented by the procedure in one study[45] may differ from the values presented in other studies using different procedures.[46][51][50]
Lyman-break galaxy discovered by JWST; tentative (5.1σ) ALMA detection of a single emission line possibly attributed to either [C II] (z = 4.6108±0.0001) or [O III] (z = 16.0089±0.0004).[48][49]
Not yet spectroscopically confirmed. Guinness World Record of the most distant confirmed galaxy Lyman-break galaxy (5σ confidence) followed with a tentative ALMA detection of a single [O III] oxygen emission line only (4σ confidence)[53]
§ The tabulated distance is the light travel distance, which has no direct physical significance. See discussion at distance measures and Observable Universe
[81][28] Note, GRB 090429B has a photometric redshift zp≅9.4,[82] and so is most likely more distant than GRB 090423, but is lacking spectroscopic confirmation.
An analysis of the lightcurve of the microlensing event PA-99-N2 suggests the presence of a planet orbiting a star in the Andromeda Galaxy.[97]
A controversial microlensing event of lobe A of the double gravitationally lensed Q0957+561 suggests that there is a planet in the lensing galaxy lying at redshift 0.355 (3.7 Gly).[98][99]
[81][28] Note, GRB 090429B has a photometric redshift zp≅9.4,[82] and so is most likely more distant than GRB 090423, but is lacking spectroscopic confirmation.
Timeline of most distant astronomical object recordholders
Objects in this list were found to be the most distant object at the time of determination of their distance. This is frequently not the same as the date of their discovery.
These were the most remote objects discovered at the time. The pair of galaxies were found lensed by galaxy cluster CL1358+62 (z = 0.33). This was the first time since 1964 that something other than a quasar held the record for being the most distant object in the universe.[136][139][140][137][134][141]
This is a gravitationally-lensed double-image quasar, and at the time of discovery to 1991, had the least angular separation between images, 0.45″.[156][160][161]
Using redshift measurements, NGC 7619 was the highest at the time of measurement. At the time of announcement, it was not yet accepted as a general guide to distance, however, later in the year, Edwin Hubble described redshift in relation to distance, which became accepted widely as an inferred distance.[205][207][208]
At the time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. However, in 1923, galaxies were generally recognized as external to the Milky Way.[196][205][207][209][210][211][212]
This was the second galaxy whose redshift was determined; the first being Andromeda – which is approaching us and thus cannot have its redshift used to infer distance. Both were measured by Vesto Melvin Slipher. At this time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. NGC 4594 was measured originally as 1000 km/s, then refined to 1100, and then to 1180 in 1916.[205][209][212]
160 ly (18 mas) (this is very inaccurate, true=37 ly)
This number is wrong; originally announced in 1891, the figure was corrected in 1910 to 40 ly (60 mas). From 1891 to 1910, it had been thought this was the star with the smallest known parallax, hence the most distant star whose distance was known. Prior to 1891, Arcturus had previously been recorded of having a parallax of 127 mas.[213][214][215][216]
This was the last planet discovered before the first successful measurement of stellar parallax. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets.
From Kepler's Third Law, it was finally determined that Saturn is indeed the outermost of the classical planets, and its distance derived. It had only previously been conjectured to be the outermost, due to it having the longest orbital period, and slowest orbital motion. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets.
2.6 AU when Mars is diametrically opposed to Earth
Kepler correctly characterized Mars and Earth's orbits in the publication Astronomia nova. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets.
Aristarchus of Samos made a measurement of the distance of the Sun from the Earth in relation to the distance of the Moon from the Earth. The distance to the Moon was described in Earth radii (20, also inaccurate). The diameter of the Earth had been calculated previously. At the time, it was assumed that some of the planets were further away, but their distances could not be measured. The order of the planets was conjecture until Kepler determined the distances from the Sun of the five known planets that were not Earth. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets.
Aristarchus of Samos made a measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The diameter of the Earth had been calculated previously.
z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion
mas represents parallax, a measure of angle and distance can be determined through trigonometry
List of objects by year of discovery that turned out to be most distant
This list contains a list of most distant objects by year of discovery of the object, not the determination of its distance. Objects may have been discovered without distance determination, and were found subsequently to be the most distant known at that time. However, object must have been named or described. An object like OJ 287 is ignored even though it was detected as early as 1891 using photographic plates, but ignored until the advent of radiotelescopes.
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