Cat intelligence is the capacity of the domesticated cat to solve problems and adapt to its environment. Research has shown that feline intelligence includes the ability to acquire new behavior that applies knowledge to new situations, communicating needs and desires within a social group and responding to training cues.
Properties of the feline brain
Brain size
The brain of the domesticated cat is about five centimetres (2.0 in) long and weighs 25–30 g (0.88–1.06 oz).[1][2] If a typical cat is taken to be 60 cm (24 in) long with a weight of 3.3 kg (7.3 lb), then the brain would be at 0.91%[3] of its total body mass, compared to 2.33%[3] of total body mass in the average human. Within the encephalization quotient proposed by Jerison in 1973,[3] values above 1 are classified big-brained, while values lower than one are small-brained.[4] The domestic cat is attributed a value of between 1 and 1.71 (for comparison: human values range between 7.44 and 7.8).[1][3]
The largest brains in the familyFelidae are those of the tigers in Java and Bali.[5] It is debated whether there exists a causal relationship between brain size and intelligence in vertebrates. Most experiments involving the relevance of brain size to intelligence hinge on the assumption that complex behavior requires a complex (and therefore intelligent) brain; however, this connection has not been consistently demonstrated.[6][7][8][9][10]
The surface area of a cat's cerebral cortex is approximately 83 cm2 (13 in2); furthermore, a theoretical cat weighing 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) has a cerebellum weighing 5.3 g (0.19 oz), 0.17% of the total weight.[11]
Brain structures
According to researchers at Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, the physical structure of the brains of humans and cats is very similar.[12] The human brain and the cat brain both have cerebral cortices[13] with similar lobes.[14][failed verification]
Feline brains are gyrencephalic, i.e. they have a surface folding as human brains do.[20][21]
Analyses of cat brains have shown they are divided into many areas with specialized tasks that are vastly interconnected and share sensory information in a kind of hub-and-spoke network, with a large number of specialized hubs and many alternative paths between them. This exchange of sensory information allows the brain to construct a complex perception of the real world and to react to and manipulate its environment.[22]
Grouse et al. (1979) ascertained the neuroplasticity of kittens' brains, with respect to control of visual stimulus correlated with changes in RNA structures.[36] In a later study, it was found that cats possess visual-recognition memory,[37][38] and have flexibility of cerebral encoding from visual information.[39]
A cognitive support diet for felines is a food that is formulated with the aim of improving mental processes like attention, short and long-term memory, learning, and problem solving. There is currently no strong evidence that such diets are effective in improving cognitive function. Claims for cognitive support appear on a number of kitten formulations to help with brain development, as well as diets aimed at seniors to help prevent cognitive disorders. These diets typically focus on supplying Omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, taurine, vitamins, and other supporting supplements that are considered to have positive effects on cognition.[citation needed]
The omega-3 fatty acids are a key nutrient in cognition for felines. They are essential for felines as they cannot be synthesized naturally and must be obtained from the diet.[40] Omega-3 fatty acids that support brain development and function are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).[40] Fish oils, fish and other marine sources provide a very rich source of DHA and EPA.[40] Alpha-linolenic acid can be acquired from oils and seeds.[40]
Omega-6 fatty acids are also often included in feline cognition diets.[citation needed] The important omega-6 fatty acid that plays a role in brain support and cognition is arachidonic acid.[41] Arachidonic acid, or AA, is found in animal sources such as meat and eggs.[41] AA is required in cat diets, as felines convert insignificant amounts of it from linoleic acid due to the limited enzyme delta-6 desaturase.[42] Like DHA, arachidonic acid is often found in the brain tissues of cats and seems to have a supporting role in brain function.[41] In a 2000 study completed by Contreras et al., it was found that DHA and AA made up 20% of the fatty acids in the mammalian brain.[43] Arachidonic acid makes up high amounts in the membrane of most cells and has many pro-inflammatory actions.[42]
Taurine is an amino acid, which is essential in cat diets due to their low capacity to synthesize it. Taurine has the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier in the brain, it plays a role in many neurological functions, especially in the visual development.[44] Without taurine, felines can have an abnormal morphology in the cerebellum and visual cortex.[44] When cats were fed a diet deficient in taurine, this led to a decrease in the concentration of taurine in the retina of the eye. This resulted in deterioration of the photoreceptors, followed by complete blindness.[45]
Choline is a water-soluble nutrient that prevents and improves epilepsy and cognitive disorders.[46] Supplementation is part of therapy for cats with seizures and feline cognitive dysfunction, despite this treatment being mostly based on anecdotal evidence and research done on dogs.[47] It is the precursor to nerve chemicals like dopamine and acetylcholine, making it important for proper functioning of the nervous system.[46]
In controlled experiments, cats showed that they had fully developed concepts of object permanence, meaning that sensorimotor intelligence is completely developed in cats. For human infants, tests involving multiple invisible displacements of an object are used to assess the beginning of mental representation in the sixth and last stage of sensorimotor intelligence. The cats' searches on these tasks were consistent with representation of an unsensed object and fully developed sensorimotor intelligence.[50][51]
In 2009, an experiment was conducted where cats could pull on a string to retrieve a treat under a plastic screen. When presented with one string, cats had no trouble getting the treats, but when presented with multiple strings, some of which were not connected to treats, the cats were unable to consistently choose the correct strings, leading to the conclusion that cats do not understand cause and effect in the same way that humans do.[52][53]
Memory
In wild cats, such as lions, selective pressures have demonstrated that these animals exhibit extensive long-term memory in relation to problem-solving for at least seven months after solution.[54] However, relationships with humans, individual differences in intelligence, and age may all affect memory. Cats possess impressive long-term memory capabilities, retaining recollections of events and locations for a decade or longer. These memories are often intertwined with emotions, allowing cats to recall both positive and negative experiences associated with specific places.[55] This ability to adapt their memories of past environments throughout their life enables cats to easily adjust to their current surroundings.[56][57]
In kittens
The period during which the cat is a kitten is the time when the cat learns and memorizes survival skills, which are acquired through observation of their mothers and playing with other cats. Playing, in fact, constitutes more than fun for a kitten, for it is essential for ranking social order, building hunting skills, and for generally exercising for the adult roles.[58]
In older cats
The older the cat, the more these changes can affect its memory. There have been no studies done on the memories of aging cats, but there is some speculation that, just like people, short-term memory is more affected by aging.[59] In one test of where to find food, cats' short-term memory lasted about 16 hours.[citation needed]
Edward Thorndike conducted some key experiments on cats' learning capacity. In one of Thorndike's experiments, cats were placed in various boxes approximately 20 in × 15 in × 12 in (51 cm × 38 cm × 30 cm) with a door opened by pulling a weight attached to it. The cats were observed to free themselves from the boxes by "trial and error with accidental success".[60][61] Though cats did perform worse on occasion, Thorndike generally found that as cats continued the trials, the time taken to escape the boxes decreased in most cases.[62]
Thorndike considered the cat to follow the law of effect, which states that responses followed by satisfaction (i.e. a reward) become more likely responses to the same stimulus in the future.[61][60] Thorndike was generally skeptical of the presence of intelligence in cats, criticising sources of the contemporary writing of the sentience of animals as "partiality in deductions from facts and more especially in the choice of facts for investigation".[63]
An experiment was done to identify possible observational learning in kittens. Kittens that were able to observe their mothers performing an experimentally organised act were able to perform the same act sooner than kittens that had observed a non-related adult cat, and sooner than the ones who, being placed in trial and error conditions, observed no other cat performing the act.[64][65][66]
An experiment was done to study detour problem solving skills in companion cats and dogs using a transparent fence. Cats show no effect of trial-and-error learning compared to dogs. If cats recognize both sides of the obstacle represent as an equally solvable task, they freely change their spatial approach to solve the task.[67]
According to several feline behaviorists and child psychologists, an adult cat's IQ is comparable to that of a two- to three-year-old child, since both species learn through imitating, observing, and experimenting. Simply by watching their owners, and mirroring their actions, cats are capable of learning human-like behaviors like opening doors and turning off lights.[68]
Cat intelligence study is mostly from consideration of the domesticated cat. The process of domestication has allowed for closer observation of cat behaviour and in the increased incidence of interspecies communication,[69][70] and the inherent plasticity of the cat's brain has become apparent as the number of studies in this have increased scientific insight.[citation needed]
Changes in the genetic structure of a number of cats have been identified.[71][72] This is as a consequence of both domestication practises and the activity of breeding, so that the species has undergone genetic evolutionary change due to human selection.[71][72] This human selection has been coupled with an initial, naturally occurring selective set of cats, possessing characteristics desirable for the sharing of human habitation and living in Neolithic urban environments.[73]
^Outhwaite, William (2006). The Blackwell dictionary of modern social thought (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 257. ISBN978-1-4051-3456-9.
^Weiner, Irving B.; Craighead, W. Edward (2010). The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. Vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1857.
^Sorabji, Richard (1995). Animal Minds and Human Morals: The Origins of the Western Debate. Cornell University Press. ISBN978-0-8014-8298-4.[page needed]
^Allen, Colin (13 October 2010). "Animal Consciousness". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^Nieuwenhuyis, Rudolf; ten Donkelaar, Hendrik Jan; Nicholson, Charles (1998). The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates. ISBN978-3-540-56013-5.[page needed]
^Ananthanarayanan, Rajagopal; Esser, Steven K.; Simon, Horst D.; Modha, Dharmendra S. (2009). "The cat is out of the bag: cortical simulations with 109 neurons, 1013 synapses". Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Computing Networking, Storage and Analysis – SC '09. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1145/1654059.1654124. ISBN978-1-60558-744-8. S2CID6110450.
^Beaulieu, Clermont; Colonnier, Marc (1989). "Number of neurons in individual laminae of areas 3B, 4?, and 6a? Of the cat cerebral cortex: A comparison with major visual areas". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 279 (2): 228–34. doi:10.1002/cne.902790206. PMID2913067. S2CID85251210.
^Feig, Sherry; Harting, John K. (1998). "Corticocortical communication via the thalamus: Ultrastructural studies of corticothalamic projections from area 17 to the lateral posterior nucleus of the cat and inferior pulvinar nucleus of the owl monkey". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 395 (3): 281–95. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19980808)395:3<281::AID-CNE2>3.0.CO;2-Z. PMID9596524. S2CID11629224.
^Huang, Chuong C; Lindsley, Donald B (1973). "Polysensory responses and sensory interaction in pulvinar and related postero-lateral thalamic nuclei in cat". Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 34 (3): 265–80. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(73)90254-X. PMID4129614.
^Fourment, A.; Hirsch, J.C. (1980). "Synaptic potentials in cat's lateral geniculate neurons during natural sleep with special reference to paradoxical sleep". Neuroscience Letters. 16 (2): 149–54. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(80)90335-3. PMID6302571. S2CID12172929.
^Adamec, R.E.; Stark-Adamec, C. (1983). "Partial kindling and emotional bias in the cat: Lasting aftereffects of partial kindling of the ventral hippocampus". Behavioral and Neural Biology. 38 (2): 205–22. doi:10.1016/S0163-1047(83)90212-1. PMID6314985.
^Grouse, Lawrence D.; Schrier, Bruce K.; Nelson, Phillip G. (1979). "Effect of visual experience on gene expression during the development of stimulus specificity in cat brain". Experimental Neurology. 64 (2): 354–64. doi:10.1016/0014-4886(79)90275-9. PMID428511. S2CID29837042.
^Okujav, Vazha; Natishvili, Teimuraz; Gogeshvili, Ketevan; Gurashvili, Thea; Chipashvili, Senera; Bagashvili, Tamila; Andronikashvili, George; Okujava, Natela (2009). "Visual Recognition Memory in Cats: Effects of Massed vs. Distributed Trials"(PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 3 (2): 168–72. Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 September 2015.
^ abBiagi G, Moedenti A, Cocchi M (2004). "The role of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids in the nutrition of dogs and cat: A review". Progress in Nutrition. 6 (2): 1–13.
^ abSturman JA, Lu P, Xu Y, Imaki H (1994). "Feline maternal taurine deficiency: Effects on visual cortex of the offspring. A morphometric and immunohistochemical study". Taurine in Health & Disease. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 359. pp. 369–84. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1471-2_38. ISBN978-1-4899-1473-6. PMID7887277.
^ abShawn., Messonnier (2012). Nutritional supplements for the veterinary practice : a pocket guide. American Animal Hospital Association. Lakewood, Colo.: AAHA Press. ISBN9781583261743. OCLC794670587.
^Shawn., Messonnier (2001). Natural health bible for dogs & cats : your A-Z guide to over 200 conditions, herbs, vitamins, and supplements (1st ed.). Roseville, Calif.: Prima. ISBN9780761526735. OCLC45320627.
^"Do Cats Have Long-Term Memory?". The Nest. As Kitty ages, his brain function will decline. Feline cognitive dysfunction is a disease similar to Alzheimer's in humans. It is caused by deterioration of the brain itself, leading to reduced cognitive functioning. A cat with this condition has trouble getting around, because he becomes disoriented easily.
^ abD. Bernstein; L. A. Penner; A. Clarke-Stewart; E. J. Roy (October 2007). Psychology. Cengage Learning. p. 205. ISBN978-0-618-87407-1. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
^Shajid Pyari, M.; Vékony, K.; Uccheddu, S.; Pongrácz, P. (2023). "Companion Cats Show No Effect of Trial-and-Error Learning Compared to Dogs in a Transparent-Obstacle Detour Task". Animals, 13, 32. doi:10.3390/ani13010032.
Turner, Dennis C, and Patrick Bateson. "The Domestic Cat: The Biology of Its Behaviour" Cambridge University Press (1988)
Miles, R. C. (1958). "Learning in kittens with manipulatory, exploratory, and food incentives". Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology. 51 (1): 39–42. doi:10.1037/h0049255. PMID13513843.
Neville, Peter "Claws and Purrs" Sidgwick & Jackson (1992)
Neville, Peter "Do Cats Need Shrinks" Sidgwick & Jackson (1990)
Voith, VL (1981). "You, too, can teach a cat tricks (examples of shaping, second-order reinforcement, and constraints on learning)". Modern Veterinary Practice. 62 (8): 639–42. PMID7290076.
External links
D.M.Fankhauser biology.clc.uc.eduRemoval and study of the cat brain and Cranial nerves of the catbiology.clc.uc.edu [Retrieved 2011-12-22] (images and instruction) for an anatomy and physiology class for the dissecting of the brain of a cat