Kesenjangan ekonomi
Perbedaan kesetaraan pendapatan nasional di seluruh dunia menurut koefisien Gini nasional. Koefisien Fini adalah angka antara 0 dan 1; 0 berarti kesetaraan sempurna (pendapatan semua orang sama dan 1 berarti kesenjangan absolut (satu orang menguasai seluruh pendapatan, sisanya berpendapatan nol). Kesenjangan ekonomi , biasa dikenal dengan istilah kesenjangan pendapatan , kesenjangan kekayaan , dan jurang antara kaya dan miskin , mengacu pada persebaran ukuran ekonomi di antara individu dalam kelompok, kelompok dalam populasi, atau antar negara. Para ekonom umumnya mengakui tiga ukuran kesenjangan ekonomi: kekayaan, pendapatan , dan konsumsi .[ 1] kesetaraan ekonomi , kesetaraan pengeluaran , dan kesetaraan kesempatan .[ 2]
Sejumlah penelitian menyebut bahwa kesenjangan adalah masalah sosial yang semakin berkembang.[ 3] [ 4] [ 5] [ 6] [ 7] [ 8] [ 9] Dana Moneter Internasional menunjukkan bahwa kesetaraan pendapatan yang lebih besar—berkurangnya kesenjangan—meningkatkan durasi pertumbuhan ekonomi sebuah negara dengan lebih cepat dibandingkan perdagangan bebas, korupsi pemerintah rendah, investasi asing, atau utang luar negeri rendah.[ 10]
Kesenjangan ekonomi bervariasi tergantung masyarakat, waktu, struktur ekonomi, dan sistem. Istilah tersebut dapat mengacu pada persebaran pendapatan atau kekayaan lintas lapisan masyarakat pada waktu tertentu, atau pendapatan dan kekayaan seumur hidup dalam jangka panjang.[ 11] indeks numerik untuk mengukur kesenjangan ekonomi. Di antara metode pengukuran kesenjagan yang ada, koefisien Gini merupakan indeks yang paling terkenal.
Tabel
Tabel berikut menampilkan pola kekayaan antarnegara. Informasi di dalam tabel ini berasal dari Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", terbit tahun 2013.[ 12]
Negara
Dewasa
Kekayaan
Kekayaan
Persebaran dewasa (%) menurut kekayaan (USD)
Gini
di bawah 10rb
10rb – 100rb
100rb – 1jt
> 1jt
Total
Denmark 4,190
255,066
57,675
39.5
17
37.8
5.7
100
107.7
Russian Federation 110,365
10,976
871
93.7
5.6
0.6
0.1
100
93.1
Ukraine 35,912
3,413
419
97.4
2.3
0.2
0
100
90
Kazakhstan 10,958
7,161
1,176
93.1
6.3
0.6
0.1
100
86.7
Lebanon 2,953
30,868
6,076
66.8
29.8
3.2
0.3
100
86.3
United States of America 239,279
301,140
44,911
30.7
33
30.7
5.5
100
85.1
Zimbabwe 6,690
2,913
479
93.9
5.8
0.3
0
100
83.8
Turkey 51,687
25,909
5,326
67
30.3
2.5
0.2
100
83.7
South Africa 31,034
19,613
3,051
72.3
24.9
2.6
0.1
100
83.6
Hong Kong, China 6,052
153,312
32,384
30.3
49.7
18.3
1.7
100
83.1
Philippines 56,730
8,799
1,849
88.1
11.1
0.8
0.1
100
82.9
Indonesia 157,869
11,839
2,393
81.1
17.6
1.3
0.1
100
82.8
Thailand 49,642
7,772
1,855
90.5
8.8
0.6
0
100
82.6
Venezuela 18,991
6,900
1,505
90.9
8.5
0.6
0
100
82.5
Brazil 135,385
23,278
5,117
66.6
30.5
2.7
0.2
100
82.1
Malaysia 18,382
27,007
5,831
61.4
35.3
3.1
0.2
100
81.5
Chile 12,461
49,032
11,742
45
48
6.6
0.4
100
81.4
India 767,612
4,706
1,040
94.4
5.2
0.3
0
100
81.3
Switzerland 6,101
512,562
95,916
5.2
46
38.8
10
100
80.6
Sweden 7,299
299,441
52,677
15.6
48.3
29.2
6.9
100
80.3
Egypt 52,710
7,285
1,852
90.4
9
0.6
0
100
80.3
Nigeria 80,462
3,620
894
94.9
4.9
0.3
0
100
80
Colombia 30,464
26,222
6,228
60.2
35.8
3.9
0.2
100
79.7
Seychelles 54
60,003
14,617
40
50
9.2
0.8
100
79.6
Argentina 28,265
15,638
4,032
72.1
26.1
1.7
0.1
100
79.6
Saudi Arabia 16,694
37,346
9,772
53.3
41.1
5.3
0.3
100
79.3
Namibia 1,256
19,899
4,531
67.5
28.3
4.2
0.1
100
78.7
Israel 4,947
137,351
38,164
30
44.8
23.7
1.5
100
78.7
Comoros 388
2,872
670
93.8
6.1
0.2
0
100
78.7
Cyprus 694
119,568
34,874
23.8
56.3
18.6
1.4
100
78.3
Mexico 73,380
35,872
9,718
53.5
40.6
5.7
0.3
100
78
Norway 3,733
380,473
92,859
19.4
32.5
40.6
7.5
100
77.8
Austria 6,761
203,931
57,450
28.2
31.8
37
3
100
77.8
Libya 4,291
28,397
6,563
58.1
35.7
6
0.1
100
77.7
Botswana 1,181
10,348
2,649
81
17.6
1.4
0
100
77.2
Germany 67,068
192,232
49,370
29
33.3
35.1
2.6
100
77.1
Haiti 5,813
3,532
960
92.3
7.5
0.2
0
100
76.1
Angola 9,273
14,708
3,934
69.1
28.8
2.1
0
100
75.6
Central African Republic 2,370
800
241
99.1
0.9
0
0
100
74.8
Bolivia 5,800
4,604
1,368
89.3
10.4
0.3
0
100
74.4
Zambia 6,151
1,817
548
96.8
3.2
0
0
100
74.1
Czech Republic 8,437
44,975
15,541
40
53.2
6.4
0.3
100
74
Singapore 3,955
281,764
90,466
20
34.2
41.4
4.4
100
73.9
Kuwait 2,291
119,101
42,897
21.8
55.5
21.5
1.2
100
73.8
Poland 30,255
26,056
9,109
55
41.5
3.3
0.1
100
73.7
Taiwan 18,359
151,752
53,336
22.5
45.1
30.8
1.7
100
73.6
Netherlands 12,914
185,588
83,631
23.3
30.9
43.6
2.2
100
73.2
Belize 188
9,998
3,130
76.3
22.6
1.1
0
100
73.1
Suriname 344
14,250
4,544
68.8
29.6
1.6
0
100
73
Nicaragua 3,424
3,432
1,147
92.5
7.3
0.1
0
100
73
Romania 16,692
14,044
5,137
69.3
29.2
1.4
0.1
100
73
Lesotho 1,079
3,457
1,105
92.4
7.5
0.1
0
100
72.9
Paraguay 3,910
10,934
3,726
73.2
25.6
1.3
0
100
72.8
Swaziland 628
4,360
1,393
90
9.8
0.2
0
100
72.7
Panama 2,322
22,292
7,509
57.3
38.5
4.2
0
100
72.7
Rwanda 5,306
723
245
99.3
0.7
0
0
100
72.7
Sao Tome and Principe 86
2,721
959
94.3
5.7
0.1
0
100
72.7
Canada 27,173
251,034
90,252
30
21.5
44.9
3.7
100
72.7
Korea 38,350
79,475
30,938
25.3
59.5
14.5
0.7
100
72.6
Papua New Guinea 3,752
8,470
2,821
81.1
18
0.8
0
100
72.4
Cape Verde 295
16,313
5,478
65
32.5
2.5
0
100
72.3
Antigua and Barbuda 63
19,011
6,281
58.8
38.3
3
0
100
72.2
Costa Rica 3,246
28,124
9,532
54.1
40.2
5.7
0.1
100
72.2
Dominica 50
24,086
8,349
55
40.3
4.7
0.1
100
72
St. Kitts and Nevis 34
23,613
8,185
56.3
39.1
4.6
0.1
100
71.9
St. Vincent and the Grenadines 71
10,196
3,492
73.8
25.1
1.1
0
100
71.9
Grenada 67
14,473
5,017
67.5
30.7
1.7
0
100
71.9
New Zealand 3,234
182,548
76,607
25.6
34.1
38.1
2.3
100
71.8
Ecuador 8,723
12,350
4,403
69.8
28.8
1.4
0
100
71.4
El Salvador 3,738
12,039
4,483
70
28.7
1.3
0
100
71
Ireland 3,488
183,804
75,573
20.9
36.5
40.4
2.2
100
70.9
Kenya 20,757
2,843
1,049
94.2
5.7
0.1
0
100
70.9
Oman 1,872
48,415
18,152
40
47.8
12
0.2
100
70.8
Peru 18,865
18,227
6,705
58.5
38.9
2.6
0
100
70.8
Gambia 908
864
324
99.2
0.8
0
0
100
70.8
Congo-Brazzaville 2,024
3,892
1,420
91.2
8.6
0.1
0
100
70.8
United Arab Emirates 3,777
126,791
51,882
20
50.6
28.2
1.3
100
70.5
Qatar 1,278
153,294
58,237
25
38.3
35
1.7
100
70.5
Portugal 8,614
89,074
38,846
25.8
54.8
18.7
0.8
100
70.1
Mozambique 11,441
811
313
99.3
0.7
0
0
100
70
Jamaica 1,719
11,401
4,393
70
28.8
1.2
0
100
69.9
Uruguay 2,400
47,002
17,998
39.6
48.3
11.9
0.2
100
69.8
Uganda 15,107
750
294
99.4
0.6
0
0
100
69.6
DR Congo 31,854
321
124
99.9
0.1
0
0
100
69.6
China 998,254
22,230
8,023
58.4
39.1
2.4
0.1
100
69.5
Madagascar 10,359
448
177
99.8
0.2
0
0
100
69.4
Guyana 474
3,801
1,506
91.6
8.3
0.1
0
100
69.2
Fiji 523
6,473
2,630
85
14.6
0.4
0
100
69
France 48,124
295,933
141,850
21.7
22.9
50.8
4.6
100
69
Barbados 200
22,289
8,108
55
41.5
3.5
0
100
69
Eritrea 2,781
2,125
875
96.3
3.7
0
0
100
68.9
Macedonia, FYR 1,561
11,543
4,743
69.3
29.6
1.1
0
100
68.8
Sierra Leone 2,897
681
273
99.6
0.4
0
0
100
68.8
Ghana 13,501
1,811
743
97.7
2.3
0
0
100
68.6
St. Lucia 119
13,087
5,296
66.3
32.5
1.2
0
100
68.5
Tunisia 7,452
21,084
8,823
55
41.5
3.5
0
100
68.2
Gabon 869
21,860
9,240
55
41.3
3.7
0
100
68.2
Solomon Islands 298
9,868
4,261
73.8
25.3
1
0
100
68.1
Morocco 21,355
11,398
4,750
70
28.9
1.1
0
100
68.1
Côte d'Ivoire 11,501
2,640
1,104
95
4.9
0.1
0
100
68.1
Sri Lanka 14,326
5,033
2,101
87.9
11.9
0.2
0
100
68
Turkmenistan 3,352
36,570
15,305
40
52.1
7.8
0.1
100
68
Georgia 3,172
21,640
9,178
54.7
41.8
3.5
0
100
68
Togo 3,693
2,450
1,049
95.6
4.3
0
0
100
67.9
United Kingdom 48,220
243,570
111,524
18
28.8
50
3.2
100
67.7
Mauritania 1,832
1,967
865
97
3
0
0
100
67.7
Burkina Faso 7,721
1,273
543
98.7
1.3
0
0
100
67.7
Djibouti 508
3,465
1,488
92.8
7.2
0.1
0
100
67.5
Chad 5,485
1,131
483
99
1
0
0
100
67.5
Trinidad and Tobago 987
15,088
6,459
60
38.5
1.5
0
100
67.4
Malawi 7,417
207
89
100
0
0
0
100
67.3
Guinea 5,301
882
380
99.4
0.6
0
0
100
67.3
Iceland 253
211,592
104,733
20
30
47.3
2.7
100
67.3
Tonga 54
15,905
7,217
58.8
39.8
1.5
0
100
67.2
Senegal 6,423
2,597
1,125
95.3
4.7
0
0
100
67.2
Cameroon 10,459
2,603
1,115
95.2
4.8
0
0
100
67.2
Vanuatu 138
6,068
2,753
85
14.7
0.3
0
100
67.1
Benin 4,733
3,187
1,398
93.6
6.3
0.1
0
100
67.1
Samoa 92
34,537
15,132
40
53
6.9
0.1
100
67
Cambodia 9,151
2,644
1,155
95
4.9
0
0
100
67
Yemen 12,192
4,951
2,193
88.3
11.6
0.2
0
100
66.8
Iran 53,270
8,727
3,846
75
24.4
0.6
0
100
66.8
Liberia 2,118
2,173
987
96.5
3.5
0
0
100
66.7
Tanzania 22,038
951
423
99.3
0.7
0
0
100
66.6
Laos 3,618
5,393
2,411
86.7
13.1
0.2
0
100
66.5
Lithuania 2,537
23,411
10,635
47.5
48.5
3.9
0
100
66.5
Myanmar 34,180
2,214
941
97
3
0
0
100
66.4
Finland 4,195
171,821
95,095
29
22.3
47.2
1.6
100
66.4
Maldives 210
5,556
2,480
85
14.8
0.2
0
100
66.3
Bahamas 242
41,106
17,842
35
55.9
9
0.1
100
66.2
Spain 37,206
123,997
63,306
17.4
52.4
29
1.1
100
66.1
Mongolia 1,855
14,214
6,433
61.1
37.6
1.3
0
100
66.1
Syrian Arab Republic 13,352
7,073
3,198
82.7
16.9
0.4
0
100
66
Latvia 1,787
24,285
11,338
45
50.9
4
0
100
66
Greece 9,105
102,971
53,937
20.4
53.7
25.1
0.8
100
65.9
Jordan 3,858
14,364
6,589
60.3
38.3
1.4
0
100
65.9
Kyrgyz Republic 3,568
5,385
2,432
85.9
13.9
0.2
0
100
65.9
Viet Nam 61,765
4,857
2,215
87.8
12
0.2
0
100
65.8
West Bank and Gaza 1,739
8,979
4,200
73.1
26.3
0.6
0
100
65.8
Equatorial Guinea 365
19,525
9,130
55
42.6
2.4
0
100
65.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina 2,985
11,173
5,139
68.2
30.9
0.9
0
100
65.8
Luxembourg 390
315,240
182,768
15
22.5
57
5.5
100
65.7
Estonia 1,055
33,701
15,724
40
53.3
6.6
0.1
100
65.7
Guinea-Bissau 836
424
199
99.9
0.1
0
0
100
65.7
Albania 2,237
9,450
4,451
72.7
26.6
0.7
0
100
65.6
Niger 7,014
937
434
99.3
0.7
0
0
100
65.5
Algeria 23,982
10,100
4,673
70
29.2
0.7
0
100
65.5
Sudan 23,811
1,291
595
98.9
1.1
0
0
100
65.4
Burundi 4,729
293
137
99.9
0.1
0
0
100
65.2
Azerbaijan 6,276
16,344
7,721
57.1
41.4
1.5
0
100
65.1
Croatia 3,498
26,551
12,639
41.2
54.1
4.7
0
100
65.1
Italy 49,117
241,383
138,653
20
20.5
56.5
3
100
65
Mali 6,464
955
455
99.4
0.6
0
0
100
64.7
Moldova 2,692
3,854
1,874
91.8
8.1
0.1
0
100
64.7
Nepal 17,273
1,998
951
97.7
2.3
0
0
100
64.7
Bangladesh 104,135
1,894
908
97.9
2.1
0
0
100
64.6
Mauritius 935
37,308
19,247
40
52.5
7.4
0.1
100
64.5
Hungary 7,915
28,379
14,068
40
55
4.9
0
100
64
Armenia 2,263
5,613
2,793
85.5
14.3
0.2
0
100
63.9
Tajikistan 4,022
3,168
1,581
94.3
5.7
0.1
0
100
63.8
Pakistan 106,365
4,248
2,106
90.8
9
0.1
0
100
63.8
Ethiopia 42,750
411
207
99.9
0.1
0
0
100
63.6
Australia 16,617
402,578
219,505
6.9
23.7
62.6
6.8
100
63.6
Japan 104,315
216,694
110,294
9.2
37.7
50.6
2.5
100
63.5
Montenegro 467
21,340
10,929
45
52.6
2.4
0
100
63.4
Belgium 8,387
255,573
148,141
17.4
22.1
57.3
3.2
100
62.6
Serbia 7,527
15,175
7,978
56.8
42
1.3
0
100
62.5
Bulgaria 5,991
16,818
8,825
55.2
43.4
1.4
0
100
62.5
Belarus 7,543
2,407
1,271
96.8
3.1
0
0
100
62.2
Malta 330
71,448
42,898
18.8
65
15.9
0.3
100
59.5
Bahrain 571
44,822
26,675
28.7
60
11.2
0
100
58.5
Brunei Darussalam 286
51,373
31,527
26.2
58.7
15
0
100
58.5
Slovenia 1,655
64,067
44,932
19.4
60.6
19.9
0.1
100
53.5
Slowakia 4,303
27,224
20,740
19.8
77.8
2.4
0
100
44.7
Lihat pula
2
The unnamed parameter 2= is no longer supported. Please see the documentation for
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Referensi
^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah;
tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama hydra ^ Fletcher, Michael A. (March 10, 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy" . Washington Post . Diakses tanggal March 23, 2013 . ^ Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6 . ^ Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF) . Journal of Development Economics . 84 (2): 755–776. doi :10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002 . Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2016-03-04. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02 . ^ Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF) . Investigaciones Regionales . 12 (24): 153–173. Diakses tanggal 17 October 2013 . ^ Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF) . International Labour Review . 148 : 1–2. doi :10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x . ^ Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF) . Journal of Economic Literature . 37 (1): 112–156. doi :10.1257/jel.37.1.112 . Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2015-10-18. Diakses tanggal 2015-11-02 . ^ Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF) . Journal of Development Economics . 47 : 403–427. doi :10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o . ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah;
tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BanerjeeDuflo ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah;
tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama BergOstryEE ^ Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," Quarterly Journal of Economics . 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.
^ [1] Diarsipkan 2017-10-19 di Wayback Machine . Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013
Bacaan lanjutan
Buku Atkinson, Anthony B. ; Bourguignon, François (2000). Handbook of income distribution ISBN 9780444816313 . Atkinson, Anthony B. (2015). Inequality: What Can Be Done? Harvard University Press . ISBN 0-674-50476-3 Barro, Robert J. ; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2003) [1995]. Economic growth (edisi ke-2nd). Massachusetts: MIT Press . ISBN 9780262025539 . Deneulin, Séverine ; Shahani, Lila (2009). An introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency . Sterling, Virginia Ottawa, Ontario: Earthscan International Development Research Centre. ISBN 9781844078066 . Giddens, Anthony ; Diamond, Patrick (2005). The new egalitarianism . Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 9780745634319 . Gilens, Martin (2012). Affluence and influence: Economic inequality and political power in America ISBN 9780691162423 . Lambert, Peter J. (2001). The distribution and redistribution of income (edisi ke-3rd). Manchester New York New York: Manchester University Press Palgrave. ISBN 9780719057328 . Lynn, Richard ; Vanhanen, Tatu (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations ISBN 9780275975104 . Page, Benjamin I.; Jacobs, Lawrence R. (2009). Class war?: What Americans really think about economic inequality ISBN 9780226644554 . Salverda, Wiemer; Nolan, Brian; Smeeding, Timothy M. (2009). The Oxford handbook of economic inequality . Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199231379 . Schmidtz, David (2006). The elements of justice ISBN 9780521539364 . Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom ISBN 9780198297581 . Sen, Amartya ; Foster, James E. (1997). On economic inequality ISBN 9780198281931 . von Braun, Joachim; Diaz-Bonilla, Eugenio (2008). Globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor ISBN 9780195695281 . von Mises, Ludwig (1998). "Chapter 35: The welfare principle versus the market principle". Dalam von Mises, Ludwig . Human action: a treatise on economics ISBN 978-0-945466-24-6 Wilkinson, Richard G. (2005). The impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier ISBN 9780415372695 . Wilkinson, Richard G. ; Pickett, Kate (2009). The spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better ISBN 9781846140396 . Artikel Alesina, Alberto; Di Tella, Rafael; MacCulloch, Robert (August 2004). "Inequality and Happiness: Are Americans and Europeans Different?" . Journal of Public Economics . Elsevier . 88 (9–10): 2009–2042. doi :10.1016/j.jpubeco.2003.07.006 . Andersen, Robert; Fetner, Tina (October 2008). "Economic inequality and intolerance: Attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies" . American Journal of Political Science Midwest Political Science Association . 52 (4): 942–958. doi :10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00352.x . JSTOR 25193859 . Barro, Robert J. (May 1991). "Economic growth in a cross section of countries" . Quarterly Journal of Economics Oxford Journals . 106 (2): 407–443. doi :10.2307/2937943 . Barro, Robert J. (March 2000). "Inequality and growth in a panel of countries" . Journal of Economic Growth Springer . 5 (1): 5–32. doi :10.1023/A:1009850119329 . Fukuda-Parr, Sakiko (2003). "The human development paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's ideas on capabilities" . Feminist Economics Taylor and Francis . 9 (2-3): 301–317. doi :10.1080/1354570022000077980 . Galor, Oded ; Zeira, Joseph (January 1993). "Income distribution and macroeconomics" . Review of Economic Studies . Oxford Journals . 60 (1): 35–52. doi :10.2307/2297811 . JSTOR 2297811 . Kaldor, Nicholas (1955). "Alternative theories of distribution" . Review of Economic Studies . Oxford Journals . 23 (2): 83–100. doi :10.2307/2296292 . JSTOR 2296292 . Kenworthy, Lane (November–December 2010). "Rising inequality, public policy, and America's poor" . Challenge Taylor and Francis . 53 (6): 93–109. doi :10.2753/0577-5132530606 . JSTOR 27896630 . Pdf. Lagerlöf, Nils-Petter (August 2005). "Sex, equality, and growth" . Canadian Journal of Economics Wiley . 38 (3): 807–831. doi :10.1111/j.0008-4085.2005.00303.x . Sex, equality, and growth (in that order) Diarsipkan 2015-04-02 di Wayback Machine .Maavak, Mathew (December 2012). "Class warfare, anarchy and the future society" . Journal of Futures Studies Tamkang University Press . 17 (2): 15–36. Pdf. Diarsipkan 2017-10-19 di Wayback Machine .García-Peñalosa, Cecilia; Turnovsky, Stephen J. (March 2007). "Growth, income inequality, and fiscal policy: What are the relevant trade-offs?" . Journal of Money, Credit and Banking Wiley . 39 (2-3): 369–394. doi :10.1111/j.0022-2879.2007.00029.x . Pdf. Diarsipkan 2016-03-04 di Wayback Machine .Pigou, Arthur C. (1932) [1920], "Part I, Chapter VIII: Economic welfare and changes in the distribution of the national dividend (section I.VIII.3) ", dalam Pigou, Arthur C. , The economics of welfare OCLC 302702 . Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (May 2006). "The world distribution of income: Falling poverty and ... convergence, period" . Quarterly Journal of Economics Oxford Journals . 121 (2): 351–397. doi :10.1162/qjec.2006.121.2.351 . JSTOR 25098796 . Seguino, Stephanie (1 July 2000). "Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis" . World Development ScienceDirect . 28 (7): 1211–1230. doi :10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8 . Smeeding, Timothy M.; Thompson, Jeffrey P. (2011), "Recent trends in income inequality", dalam Immervoll, Herwig; Peichl, Andreas; Tatsiramos, Konstantinos, Who loses in the downturn? Economic crisis, employment and income distribution , Research in Labor Economics, Volume 32, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited , hlm. 1–50, ISBN 9780857247490 . Pdf. Also available as Smeeding, Timothy M.; Thompson, Jeffrey P. (2011). "Recent trends in income inequality (book chapter)" . Research in Labor Economics (book series) . Emerald Group Publishing Limited . 32 : 1–50. doi :10.1108/S0147-9121(2011)0000032004 . Makalah Burkhauser, R. V.; Feng, S.; Jenkins, S. P. (2009). "Using the P90/P10 index to measure US inequality trends with Current Population Survey data: A view from inside the Census Bureau vaults" . Review of Income and Wealth . 55 (1): 166–185. doi :10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00305.x . Dollar, David; Gatti, Roberta (May 1999). Gender inequality, income, and growth: Are good times good for women? (pdf) . Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. Washington DC: The World Bank. OCLC 43703722 . Ravallion, Martin (2005). World Bank , 5 May, Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 3579, A poverty-inequality trade-off? Diarsipkan 2012-07-08 di Wayback Machine .
Sawhill, Isabel. "Do We Face a Permanently Divided Society? " The Economics of Inequality, Poverty, and Discrimination in the 21st Century Ed. Robert S. Rycroft. The University of Mary Washington, 2012.
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Pranala luar
Kesenjangan ekonomi di Wikimedia CommonsLevy, Frank (2008). "Distribution of Income" . Dalam David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics Library of Economics and Liberty . ISBN 978-0865976658 . OCLC 237794267 . A portal dedicated to the topic of economic inequality Small Inequality Measures Calculus (and On-Line Calculator) The UC Atlas of Global Inequality Diarsipkan 2015-08-23 di Wayback Machine . explores some aspects of inequality using online, downloadable maps and graphics.Population Health Forum website – group seeking to improve health by addressing inequality.Russell Sage Foundation. "Social Inequality" . Working Papers . Diarsipkan dari versi asli (Web page) tanggal May 29, 2006. Diakses tanggal March 2, 2006 . Leigh, A. and Jencks, C. (2005). "Inequality and Health: Long-Run Evidence from a Panel of Countries" (PDF) . Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2008-02-27. Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005 . Clarkwest, A and Jencks, C. (2003). "Inequality and Mortality in Rich Countries: Who Owns the Null Hypothesis?" (PDF) . Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal May 28, 2006. Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005 . The Inequality Predicament United Nations Report on the World Social Situation 2005Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States Diarsipkan 2007-06-13 di Wayback Machine .Has U.S. Income Inequality Really Increased? Accessed 2007-06-11.Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time Over Five Decades Diarsipkan 2013-01-21 di Wayback Machine . studies the trade-offs between earning income and enjoying leisureData from the Inequality Survey Decreasing Inequality Under Latin America's "Social Democratic" and "Populist" Governments: Is the Difference Real? from the Center for Economic and Policy Research Wealth and Poverty: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois Diarsipkan 2013-05-08 di Wayback Machine .Thomas Piketty's presentation Inequality & Capitalism in the Long-Run Diarsipkan 2016-03-12 di Wayback Machine . based on Capital in the Twenty-First Century "Wealth Gap" – A Guide (AP News – January 2014).Economic and Social Inequality in Asia and Pacific: 12 Things to Know Asian Development BankAs inequality soars, the nervous super rich are already planning their escapes . The Guardian .Asia’s Wealth Inequality Problem . The Diplomat .
