Hubungan antara agama dan ilmu pengetahuan

Para sejarawan ilmu dan agama, filsuf, teolog, ilmuwan, dan lainnya dari berbagai wilayah geografis dan budaya telah membahas berbagai aspek hubungan antara agama dan ilmu pengetahuan. Meskipun dunia kuno dan abad pertengahan tidak memiliki konsepsi yang menyerupai pemahaman modern tentang "ilmu pengetahuan" atau "agama",^[1] unsur-unsur gagasan modern tertentu tentang persoalan ini berulang sepanjang sejarah. Frasa berpasangan-pasangan "agama dan ilmu pengetahuan" dan "ilmu pengetahuan dan agama" pertama kali muncul dalam literatur pada abad ke-19.^[2]^[3] Ini bersamaan dengan penyempurnaan "ilmu" (dari studi-studi "filsafat alam") dan "agama" sebagai konsep berbeda dalam beberapa abad sebelumnya - sebagian karena profesionalisasi ilmu, Reformasi Protestan, kolonisasi, dan globalisasi.^[4]^[5]^[6]

Baik ilmu pengetahuan maupun agama merupakan upaya sosial dan budaya yang kompleks yang bervariasi antar budaya dan telah berubah seiring waktu.^[7]^[8]^[9] Sebagian besar inovasi ilmiah (dan teknis) sebelum revolusi ilmiah dicapai oleh masyarakat yang diorganisasi oleh tradisi-tradisi keagamaan. Para sarjana pagan, Islam, dan Kristen kuno memelopori unsur-unsur individu dari metode ilmiah. Roger Bacon, yang kerap dipuji karena memformalkan metode ilmiah, adalah seorang biarawan Fransiskan.^[10] Agama Hindu secara historis menganut nalar dan empirisme, berpendapat bahwa ilmu membawa pengetahuan tentang dunia dan semesta yang sah, tetapi tidak lengkap. Pemikiran Konfusianisme, apakah bersifat religius atau nonreligius, telah memiliki pandangan berbeda tentang ilmu dari waktu ke waktu. Sebagian besar umat Buddha abad ke-21 memandang ilmu sebagai pelengkap keyakinan mereka. Sementara klasifikasi dunia materi oleh bangsa India dan Yunani kuno menjadi udara, bumi, api, dan air yang lebih bersifat filosofis, dan para protoilmuwan seperti Anaxagoras secara tidak sopan mempertanyakan pandangan populer tertentu tentang dewa-dewa Yunani, para sarjana Timur Tengah abad pertengahan menggunakan pengamatan praktis dan eksperimental untuk mengklasifikasikan materi.^[11]

Peristiwa-peristiwa di Eropa seperti perkara Galileo awal abad ke-17, yang terkait dengan revolusi ilmiah dan Abad Pencerahan, mengantar para sarjana seperti John William Draper menyusun postulat (sekitar tahun 1874) sebuah tesis konflik, yang menyatakan bahwa agama dan ilmu pengetahuan telah berada dalam konflik secara metodologis, faktual, dan politis sepanjang sejarah. Beberapa ilmuwan kontemporer (seperti Richard Dawkins, Lawrence Krauss, Peter Atkins, dan Donald Prothero) menyetujui tesis ini. Namun, tesis konflik telah kehilangan dukungan di kalangan sebagian besar sejarawan ilmu pengetahuan kontemporer.^[12]^[13]^[14]

Penerimaan publik atas fakta-fakta ilmiah kadang-kadang dapat dipengaruhi oleh kepercayaan agama seperti di Amerika Serikat, dengan beberapa kalangan menolak konsep evolusi melalui seleksi alam, terutama yang menyangkut manusia. Namun demikian, Akademi Sains Nasional Amerika Serikat telah menulis bahwa "bukti evolusi dapat sepenuhnya sesuai dengan keyakinan agama",^[15] suatu pandangan yang didukung oleh banyak denominasi keagamaan.^[16]

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Menurut tradisi:

Di Amerika Serikat:

Referensi

^ Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 3. ISBN 9780226184517. Diakses tanggal 22 May 2019. So familiar are the concepts 'science' and 'religion,' and so central to Western culture have been the activities and achievements that are usually labeled 'religious' and 'scientific,' that it is natural to assume that they have been enduring features of the cultural landscape of the West. But this view is mistaken. [...] 'science' and 'religion' are concepts of relatively recent coinage [...].
^ Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". Dalam Shank, MIchael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter. Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 254, 258, 259, 260. ISBN 978-0226317830. Indeed, prior to about the middle of the nineteenth century, the trope "science and religion" was virtually nonexistent.".."In fact, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed the creation of what one commentator called "whole libraries" devoted to reconciling religion and science. That estimate is confirmed by the data contained in figures 10.1 and 10.2, which reveal that what started as a trickle of books and articles addressing "science and religion" before 1850 became a torrent in the 1870s." (see Fig. 10.1 and 10.2)
^ Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 171. ISBN 9780226184517. When did people first begin to speak about science and religion, using that precise terminology? As should now be apparent, this could not have been before the nineteenth century. When we consult written works for actual occurrences of the conjunction “science and religion” or “religion and science” in English publications, that is exactly what we discover (see figure 14).
^ Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18448-7.
^ Nongbri, Brent (2013). Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15416-0.
^ Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
^ Stenmark, Mikael (2004). How to Relate Science and Religion: A Multidimensional Model. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. hlm. 45. ISBN 978-0-8028-2823-1. Recognizing that science and religion are essentially social practices always performed by people living in certain cultural and historical situations should alert us to the fact that religion and science change over time.
^ Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". Dalam Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter. Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226317830.
^ Lindberg, David C. (2007). "1. Science Before the Greeks (On changes in science here)". The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (edisi ke-2nd). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 2–3. ISBN 978-0226482057.
^ Clegg, Brian. "The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon". Carroll and Graf Publishers, NY, 2003
^ Science and Islam, Jim Al-Khalili. BBC, 2009
^ Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B., ed. Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. hlm. 7. ISBN 978-0-8018-7038-5. The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.
^ Shapin, S. (1996). The Scientific Revolution. University of Chicago Press. hlm. 195. In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.
^ Brooke, J. H. (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 42. In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.
^ National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. National Academy of Sciences. hlm. xiii.
^ National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. National Academy of Sciences. hlm. 13. Many religious denominations and individual religious leaders have issued statements acknowledging the occurrence of evolution and pointing out that evolution and faith do not conflict.

Catatan

Barbour, Ian. When Science Meets Religion. SanFrancisco: Harper, 2000.
Barbour, Ian. Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues. SanFrancisco: Harper, 1997. ISBN 0-06-060938-9
Chu, Dominique (2013), The Science Myth – God, society, the self and what we will never know, ISBN 1-78279-047-0
Drummond, Henry. Natural Law in the Spiritual World. London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, 29th Edition, 1890 [1]
Haught, John F. Science & Religion: From Conflict to Conversation. Paulist Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8091-3606-6
Jones, Richard H. For the Glory of God: The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science. 2 Volumes. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2011 and 2012.
Larson, Edward J. and Larry Witham. "Scientists are still keeping the faith" Nature Vol. 386, pp. 435–36 (3 April 1997)
Larson, Edward J. and Larry Witham. "Leading scientists still reject God," Nature, Vol. 394, No. 6691 (1998), p. 313. online version
Einstein on Religion and Science from Ideas and Opinions (1954), Crown Publishers, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science Philip Clayton(ed.), Zachary Simpson (associate-ed.) Hardcover 2006, paperback July 2008. Oxford University Press, 1023 pages
Grayling, A.C. (2014). The God Argument. Great Britain: Blommsbury. ISBN 9781408837436.

Bacaan lebih lanjut

Barr, Stephen M. The Believing Scientist: Essays on Science and Religion, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2016 ISBN 978-0-8028-7370-5
Brooke, John H., Margaret Osler, and Jitse M. van der Meer, editors. "Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions," Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 16(2001), ISBN 0-226-07565-6.
Brooke, John H., Science And Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-521-23961-3
Bunge, Mario, Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Buxhoeveden, Daniel; Woloschak, Gayle, ed. (2011). Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church (edisi ke-1.). Farnham: Ashgate.
Cavanaugh, William T. and James K. A. Smith, editors, Evolution and the Fall, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2017 ISBN 978-0-8028-7379-8
Cook, Melvin Alonzo, and Melvin Garfield Cook. Science and Mormonism: Correlations, Conflicts, and Conciliations. [Salt Lake City, Utah]: Deseret News Press, 1967.
Crisp, Thomas. M., Steven L. Porter, and Gregg A. Ten Elshof, eds, Neuroscience and the Soul: The Human Person in Philosophy, Science, and Theology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2016 ISBN 978-0-8028-7450-4
Haisch, Bernard. The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All, Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, ISBN 1-57863-374-5
Harper, Sharon M.P. (ed.) (2000). The Lab, the Temple, and the Market: Reflections at the Intersection of Science, Religion, and Development. International Development Research Centre. ISBN 0-88936-920-8.
Harrison, Peter, The Cambridge Companion to Science and Religion (Cambridge, 2010).
Huxley, Thomas Henry, Science and Hebrew Tradition: Essays, D. Appleton and Company, 1897, 372 pages
Johnston, Howard Agnew. Scientific Faith. [London]: Hodder & Stoughton; New York: G. H. Doran Co., 1904.
Lenaers, Roger. Nebuchadnezzar's Dream or The End of a Medieval Catholic Church^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]}. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59333-583-0.
Nelson, Thomas L. Scientific Aspects of Mormonism: or, Religion in Terms of Life. Chicago, Ill.: Press of Hillison & Etten Co., 1904, t.p. 1918.
Oord, Thomas Jay, ed., Divine Grace and Emerging Creation: Wesleyan Forays in Science and Theology of Creation, Pickwick Publications, 2009, ISBN 1-60608-287-6
Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love: The Wisdom of Well-Being, Templeton, 2003, ISBN 1-932031-70-7
Restivo, Sal, The Social Relations of Physics, Mysticism, and Mathematics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1983.
Richardson, Mark – Wesley Wildman (ed.), Religion & Science: History, Method, Dialogue, Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-91667-4
Ruse, Michael. Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? The Relationship Between Science and Religion. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-63716-3
Ruse, Michael. Science and Spirituality: Making Room for Faith in the Age of Science. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-75594-8
Stump, J.B., and Alan G. Padgett (eds.) The Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell (2012).
Van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel (editor), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, MacMillan, 2003, ISBN 0-02-865704-7
Walsh, James J., The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time, Kessinger Publishing, 1908, reprinted 2003. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9 from WorldCat [2] Review excerpts:
Waters, F. W. The Way in and the Way out: Science and Religion Reconciled. Toronto: Oxford University Press, Canadian Branch, 1967. x, [2], 269 p.
Wilber, Ken, The Marriage of Sense and Soul: Integrating Science and Religion, Broadway; Reprint edition, 1999, ISBN 0-7679-0343-9

Pranala luar

The BioLogos Forum: Science and Faith in Dialogue
Test of Faith – From the Faraday Institute for Science and Religion
Counterbalance.org: Science and Religion Project
"Faith and Reason" – website about the historical relations between science and religion, PBS
Religion and Science in Historical Perspective by Ted Davis Diarsipkan 2012-05-06 di Wayback Machine.
Is Science Killing the Soul? – Discussion with atheists Richard Dawkins and Steven Pinker on Edge Foundation.
Meaning of Life A collection of video interviews with prominent scientists about topics relating science and religion (requires WMV or RealMedia software)
Clash in Cambridge: Science and religion seem as antagonistic as ever – by John Horgan, Scientific American, September 2005
How the Public Resolves Conflicts Between Faith and Science, David Masci, Pew Research Center
Robert M. Young (1985). "Darwin's Metaphor: Nature's Place in Victorian Culture". Cambridge University Press. Diakses tanggal 2007-08-31.
Zygon Journal of Religion and Science
Science and Religion^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]} by Archbishop Luke of Crimea, an Eastern Orthodox perspective
Victorian Science and Religion The Victorian Web: Literature, History, and Culture in the Age of Victoria
Science Philosophy Theology: Science in Christian World Fifth International Conference, 29 – 31 August 1994, Dubna, Russia
The Metaphysical Foundations of Buddhism and Sciences
INTERS – Interdisciplinary Documentation on Religion and Science – collection of documents (including the Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science) that seeks to help scientists frame their work within a philosophical and humanistic context, edited at the Pontifical University of the Holy Cross (Rome, Italy)
(Italia) DISF – Dizionario Interdisciplinare di Scienza e Fede (online version of the dictionary edited in Rome by Urbaniana University Press and Città Nuova Editrice)
"Science and Religion", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Steven Jay Gould, John Haldane and Hilary Rose (In Our Time, Jan. 25, 2001)

[1] Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 3. ISBN 9780226184517. Diakses tanggal 22 May 2019. So familiar are the concepts 'science' and 'religion,' and so central to Western culture have been the activities and achievements that are usually labeled 'religious' and 'scientific,' that it is natural to assume that they have been enduring features of the cultural landscape of the West. But this view is mistaken. [...] 'science' and 'religion' are concepts of relatively recent coinage [...].

[Roberts_Jon-2] Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". Dalam Shank, MIchael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter. Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 254, 258, 259, 260. ISBN 978-0226317830. Indeed, prior to about the middle of the nineteenth century, the trope "science and religion" was virtually nonexistent.".."In fact, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries witnessed the creation of what one commentator called "whole libraries" devoted to reconciling religion and science. That estimate is confirmed by the data contained in figures 10.1 and 10.2, which reveal that what started as a trickle of books and articles addressing "science and religion" before 1850 became a torrent in the 1870s." (see Fig. 10.1 and 10.2)

[3] Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 171. ISBN 9780226184517. When did people first begin to speak about science and religion, using that precise terminology? As should now be apparent, this could not have been before the nineteenth century. When we consult written works for actual occurrences of the conjunction “science and religion” or “religion and science” in English publications, that is exactly what we discover (see figure 14).

[Harrison_Territories-4] Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18448-7.

[Before_Religion-5] Nongbri, Brent (2013). Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15416-0.

[Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-6] Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.

[7] Stenmark, Mikael (2004). How to Relate Science and Religion: A Multidimensional Model. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co. hlm. 45. ISBN 978-0-8028-2823-1. Recognizing that science and religion are essentially social practices always performed by people living in certain cultural and historical situations should alert us to the fact that religion and science change over time.

[8] Roberts, Jon (2011). "10. Science and Religion". Dalam Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter. Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226317830.

[9] Lindberg, David C. (2007). "1. Science Before the Greeks (On changes in science here)". The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (edisi ke-2nd). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 2–3. ISBN 978-0226482057.

[First_Scientist,_Clegg-10] Clegg, Brian. "The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon". Carroll and Graf Publishers, NY, 2003

[Jim-11] Science and Islam, Jim Al-Khalili. BBC, 2009

[Russel,_C.A._2002_7-12] Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B., ed. Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. hlm. 7. ISBN 978-0-8018-7038-5. The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.

[Shapin1996-13] Shapin, S. (1996). The Scientific Revolution. University of Chicago Press. hlm. 195. In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.

[Brooke1991-14] Brooke, J. H. (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 42. In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.

[nas-15] National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. National Academy of Sciences. hlm. xiii.

[16] National Academy of Sciences and Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (2008). Science, Evolution and Creationism. National Academy of Sciences. hlm. 13. Many religious denominations and individual religious leaders have issued statements acknowledging the occurrence of evolution and pointing out that evolution and faith do not conflict.

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Hubungan antara agama dan ilmu pengetahuan

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Referensi

Catatan

Bacaan lebih lanjut

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